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BX  8931  .05  1897a 
Ogilvie,  J.  N.  1860-1926. 
The  Presbyterian  churches 


The  Presbyterian  Churches 


THE  GUILD  TEXT  BOOKS 


THE 


Presbyterian    Churches 


THEIR  PLACE  AND  POWER 
IN  MODERN  CHRISTENDOM 


By  the  Rev. 

J.  N.   Ogilvie,  M.A. 


With  a  chapter  on  the  Presbyterian  Churches  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  by  the  Rev. 

Andrew  C.  Zenos,  D.D. 

Author  of  "  Compendium  of  Church.  History P 


New  York  Chicago  Toronto 

Fleming  H.  Revell  Company 

Publishers  of  Evangelical  Literature 


Copyright,  1897, 

BY 

Fleming  H.  Revhll  Company 


EDITORIAL    NOTE 

The  Editors  have  much  pleasure  in  adding  Mr. 
Ogilvie's  book  to  the  Series.  They  beheve  it  to 
be  its  own  evidence  that  the  author  has  been  an 
earnest  and  sympathetic  student  of  Presbyterianism 
in  its  varied  development  in  many  nations  and 
countries.  The  work  is  the  result  of  much  reading 
and  inquiry,  and  cannot  fail  to  be  helpful  to  many. 


AUTHOR'S    PREFACE 

In  the  following  pages  the  endeavour  is  made  to 
supply  a  concise  historical  sketch  of  the  various 
branches  ot  the  Presbyterian  Church.  So  far  as 
the  writer  is  aware,  it  has  not  hitherto  been  pos- 
sible for  the  ordinary  reader  to  obtain  a  general 
knowledge  of  the  place  and  power  of  Presbytery, 
save  at  the  cost  of  reading  many  sectional  his- 
tories, and  diving  deep  into  the  valuable  Reports 
of  the  General  Presbyterian  Alliance.  Of  such  a 
study  this  little  book  is  the  outcome ;  and  should 
it  prove  a  means  of  deepening  in  the  youth  of  the 
Presbyterian  Churches  their  appreciation  and  love 
of  that  system  which,  under  the  guidance  of  Pro- 
vidence, has  spread  so  widely  and  worked  so  well, 
the  writer  will  be  satisfied.  Every  effort  has  been 
made  to  ensure  accuracy,  the  statistics  (save  when 
otherwise  stated)  being  taken  from  the  last  official 
Report  of  the  Presbyterian  Alliance,  and  the  chap- 
ters on  the  more  important  Churches  having  had 
the  benefit  of  suggestions  from  members  of  these 


Viii         THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Churches.  If,  notwithstanding  these  precautions, 
any  inaccuracies  should  be  discovered,  intimation 
of  them  will  be  gratefully  accepted. 

The  writer  acknowledges  with  thanks  the  valu- 
able suggestions  received  from  Emeritus  Professor 
Mitchell  (St.  Andrews),  the  Rev.  Dr.  Mathews 
(London),  the  Rev.  Dr.  Robson  (Aberdeen),  the 
Rev.  Dr.  M'Cheyne  Edgar  (Dublin),  Principal 
Grant  (Canada),  and  others  ;  and  he  desires  to 
record  his  special  indebtedness  to  the  Rev.  Dr. 
M'Clymont  for  much  help  both  in  revision  of  the 
proof-sheets  and  in  the  general  preparation  of  the 
work. 


CONTENTS 

CHAP.  PAGE 

1.  Restoration  of  Presbyterianism        .        .  i 

2.  The  Presbyterian  Church  in  France         .  i8 

3.  „  „  ,,        IN  the  Nether- 

lands  .        .  40 

4.  Minor  Presbyterian  Churches  (Continental)  54 

5.  The  Presbyterian  Church  in  Scotland     .  68 

6.  „               „                  „        in  Ireland        .  85 

7.  ,,  „  „        in  England  and 

Wales  .        .  95 

8.  „  t,  „        IN   THE   United 

States     of 

America        ,  100 

9.  „              »,                  »,        IN  Canada        .  129 

10.     ,,  „  „        IN  the  Southern 

Hemisphere.  143 

zz.  The  Catholic  Fkesbyterian  Church          •  157 


THE 

PRESBYTERIAN    CHURCHES 

CHAPTER    I 
RESTORATION    OF    PRESBYTERIANISM — GENEVA 

AS  a  feature  in  the  life  of  the  Church,  Presbyterianism 
reaches  back  to  Apostolic  times  ;  as  a  distinguish- 
ing badge  of  certain  great  divisions  of  the  Church  Catholic, 
it  is  strictly  modern,  dating  from  the  Reformation  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  course  it  has  run  through- 
out the  centuries  has  been  that  of  a  stream  which  starts 
with  fair  promise,  but  becomes  speedily  engulfed,  and 
only  after  an  underground  passage  of  many  weary  miles 
regains  the  surface,  to  enrich  and  fertilise  the  soil.  The 
Church  of  the  first  century  had  no  features  more  distinctly 
imprinted  on  her  than  those  which  are  expressed  by  the 
term  Presbyterian,  but  ere  the  close  of  the  second  cen- 
tury these  had  disappeared,  and  did  not  again  come  into 
prominence  until  the  dawn  of  the  Refoimation.  Then  the 
Presbyterian  principles  and  practices  which  had  been  so 
long  suppressed  or  forgotten  reasserted  themselves,  pro- 
ducing the  many  and  powerhil  Presbyterian  Churches  of 
modern  Christendom. 

I.  Notes  of  Presbjrterianism. — Presbyterianism, 
as  an  ecclesiastical  distinction,  has  to  do  solely  with 
questions  of  Church  polity,  and  although  the  Presbyterian 
Churches    of  modem    times    vary    considerably  in    the 


2  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

details  of  their  organisation  and  in  the  power  assigned 
to  certain  office-bearers,  there  are  three  marks  common 
to  all,  which  they  cannot  forfeit  without  at  the  same 
time  forfeiting  their  Presbyterianism.      These  are  : — 

(a)  The  recognition  of  the  priesthood  of  the  Christian 
people,  by  the  institution  of  the  Eldership. — Associated 
with  the  Minister  of  every  Presbyterian  congregation,  for 
the  purpose  of  ruling  over  the  congregation,  are  the  Elders. 
In  their  numbers,  their  mode  of  election,  their  duration 
of  office,  and  also  in  their  proper  duties,  these  vary  in 
different  churches ;  but  as  representatives  of  the  people 
in  the  rule  of  the  Church,  and  yet  exercising  authority 
over  the  people,  they  are  found  in  every  branch  of  Presby- 
terianism. To  no  feature  in  her  system  does  Presby- 
terianism owe  more  than  to  the  office  of  the  Eldership. 

(b)  The  Parity  of  the  Presbyters. — Presbyterian 
Churches  know  no  higher  order  of  office-bearers  than 
the  Presbyterate.  In  distinction  from  Episcopacy,  which 
maintains  the  existence  of  three  orders  in  the  Church 
— Bishop,  Presbyter,  and  Deacon — Presbyterianism,  by 
identifying  the  Bishop  with  the  Presbyter,  recognises 
but  two^  Presbyter  and  Deacon,  and  insists  strongly 
on  the  essential  equality  of  members  of  the  former  order. 
Natural  ability,  spiritual  gifts,  or  eminent  position  may 
and  often  do  give  to  some  Presbyters  a  very  real 
superiority  over  others,  but  never  the  superiority  which 
springs  from  having  been  admitted  to  a  higher  order  in 
the  Church.  Since  the  Apostles  passed  away,  Presby- 
terianism maintains,  the  Church  has  had  no  higher  order 
than  that  of  the  Presbyters,  ordained  to  preach  the  Gospel 
and  administer  the  Sacraments. 

(c)  The  Unity  of  the  Church,  represented  by  a  Conciliar 
System  of  Government. — In  distinction  from  Congrega- 
tionalism, which  asserts  the  independence  of  every 
congregation,  but  in  common  wit-h  Episcopacy,  Presby- 
terianism maintains  the  organic  unity  of  the  Church. 
In  carrying  the  principle  into  practice,  however,  the  two 
great  systems  show  an  important  difference.  The  unity 
which  Episcopacy  secures  by  its  hierarchy  of  officers, 


RESTORATION  OF  PRESBYTERIANISM       3 

Presbyterianism  obtains  by  a  hierarchy  of  councils.  The 
various  congregations  are  grouped  together  and  placed 
under  ecclesiastical  councils  in  an  ascending  scale,  the 
higher  with  authority  over  the  lower  ;  while,  true  to  the 
principle  of  recognising  the  rights  of  the  people,  the 
councils  are  composed  of  both  lay  and  clerical  representa- 
tives. 

2.  The  Restorer  of  Presbyterianism.— The  raan 

to  whom  belonged  the  honour  of  giving  Presbyterianism 
once  more  a  place  and  a  name  in  history  was  John 
Calvin.  Born  in  1509,  his  place  is  among  the  Re- 
formers of  the  second  generation,  but  in  the  magnitude 
and  importance  of  his  work  he  is  unsurpassed  by 
any.  His  early  years  were  spent  in  the  sleepy  and 
orthodox  town  of  Noyon  in  Picardy,  where  his  father 
occupied  the  influential  position  of  fiscal-agent  for  the 
lordship  of  Noyon  and  secretary  to  the  Bishop  of  the 
diocese — an  ecclesiastical  connection  which  proved  of 
advantage  to  his  son.  Through  his  father's  influence 
with  the  Bishop,  Calvin  was  early  beneficed  with  two 
livings,  which  made  his  education  easy  of  accomplish- 
ment. From  the  first  he  had  been  intended  for  the 
Church,  and  with  this  in  view  he  was  sent  to  Paris,  at 
the  age  of  thirteen,  to  study  at  the  University.  Paris 
at  that  time  was  one  of  the  foremost  seats  of  learning. 
No  student  whose  mind  was  alive  could  fail  to  come 
in  contact  with  the  new  ideas  then  agitating  Christendom, 
and  on  an  acute  intellect  such  as  Calvin's  the  effect 
of  the  impact  must  have  been  great.  Apparently 
it  cooled  his  ardour  for  a  clerical  career,  for  on  his 
father  suggesting  that  he  should  abandon  the  calling 
and  study  law,  he  at  once  agreed,  and,  proceeding  to 
Orleans,  entered  on  the  new  course.  In  law  as  in 
theology  he  distanced  all  his  fellow-students,  and  gained 
a  reputation  for  ability  which  was  amply  justified  by 
his  future  greatness. 

Throughout  this  period  of  his  career,  though  he  was 
noted  for  his  austere  and  upright  life,  there  was  Kule 
sign   of   any   definite    sympathy    with    the    Reformm^ 


4  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

party.  The  only  suggestive  fact  recorded  is  that  he 
studied  with  ardour  the  Greek  New  Testament.  But 
in  1 53 1  the  crisis  came.  Then  his  father  died,  and 
Calvin  was  left  free  to  choose  his  own  course,  which  he 
did  in  a  very  decided  manner.  The  law  was  abandoned ; 
his  two  benefices,  the  only  means  of  support  which  he 
possessed,  were  resigned  ;  and  having  thus  burned  his 
boats,  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  openly  connected  him- 
self with  the  small  band  of  Protestants  then  working  in 
that  city.  The  addition  of  a  man  of  Calvin's  power  had  a 
stimulating  effect  on  the  little  company.  The  Reformers 
waxed  bold,  and  in  consequence  soon  experienced  the 
trials  of  persecution,  from  which  Calvin  was  forced  to  save 
himself  by  a  hurried  flight.  After  various  wanderings 
he  found  a  resting-place  in  Basel,  where  he  was  free  to 
devote  himself  to  those  literary  labours  which  were  his 
chief  delight  through  life,  and  in  1536  he  produced  his 
famous  work.  The  Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion^ 
a  book  which  more  than  any  other  has  influenced  the 
development  of  Protestant  Christianity. 

3.  The  Scheme  of  a  Presbyterian  Cliurcli. — 

The  plan  of  the  Instittites  follows  that  of  the  Apostles' 
Creed,  of  which  they  are  avowedly  an  exposition.  In 
thus  claiming  the  oldest  creed  of  the  historic  Church  as 
a  possession  of  the  Church  Reformed,  Calvin  emphas- 
ised the  fact  that  no  new  organisation  was  being  created 
by  the  Reformers,  nor  was  any  divorce  being  made  from 
the  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church  of  Christ.  The 
divorce  was  from  the  errors  and  superstitions  which  a 
millennium  of  Roman  supremacy  had  added  to  the 
Church  of  early  days.  The  Church  of  Christ  as  a 
divine  institution,  charged  with  special  duties  and  the 
receiver  of  special  blessings,  was  to  Calvin  a  solemn 
reality.  When  later  in  his  life  he  was  called  to  ad- 
minister the  affairs  of  the  Church  in  Geneva,  one  of  the 
most  pressing  of  his  cares  was  to  be  true  to  the  obligations 
of  this  solemn  trust ;  and  even  now,  when  first  systematis- 
ing  the  doctrine  as  to  the  Church,  his  great  endeavour 
was  to  present  loyally  the  picture  of  what  the  Church 


RESTORATION  OF  PRESBYTERIANISM      5 

had  been  in  her  earliest  and  purest  days.  With  this  aim 
he  took  the  Bible  as  his  sole  guide,  and  after  a  careful 
examination  of  the  Scriptural  teaching  on  the  subject, 
formulated  a  system  of  Church  organisation  which  con- 
Imues  to  be  the  basis  on  which  rest  the  Presbyterian 
Churches  of  to-day.  The  main  notes  of  the  system 
thus  formulated  were  three  : — 

(i)  The  Visibility  of  the  Church  as  an  organised  com- 
munity.— On  this  point  Calvin  advanced  beyond  the 
teaching  of  Luther  and  Zwingli.  These  two  earlier 
Reformers  had  been  so  oppressed  with  a  sense  of  the 
many  errors  of  the  Roman  Church  —  then  the  only 
visible  Church — that  they  were  content  for  the  most  part 
to  emphasise  the  existence  of  the  Church  Invisible,  and 
to  urge  on  men  the  necessity  of  being  in  its  membership. 
Calvin  equally  insisted  on  this  need,  but  w^ent  further. 
He  found  in  the  visible  Chtirch  the  temporal  form  and 
divinely  appointed  shell  of  the  Church  Invisible  and 
Universal,  and  urged  the  necessity  that  all  who  would  be 
members  of  the  latter  should  justify  their  claim  by  member- 
ship in  the  former.  The  Churchly  note  which  marked 
the  Roman  Church  passed  over  to  the  Presbyterian. 
"There  is  no  other  way  of  entrance  into  life,"  wrote 
this  Presbyterian  High -Churchman,  "unless  we  are 
conceived  by  her  (the  Church),  born  of  her,  nourished 
at  her  breast,  and  continually  preserved  under  her  care 
and  government  till  we  are  divested  of  this  mortal  flesh 
and  *  become  like  the  angels ' "  {.Inst.  bk.  iv.  ch.  i.  4). 

(2)  The  Government  of  the  Church. — The  visibility 
of  the  Church  as  an  organised  body,  charged  with 
special  duties,  rendered  necessary  a  definite  system  of 
government.  Here  again  the  Scriptures  formed  the 
only  guide.  Calvin  found  that  among  the  many  duties 
discharged  by  the  Early  Church,  three  continued  per- 
manent, viz.  Instruction^  Government,  and  Care  of  the 
Poor ;  and  in  like  manner,  of  the  many  office-bearers 
serving  the  Early  Church  all  but  three  were  temporary, 
these  three  being  Pastors  or  Teachers^  Elders^  and 
Deacons.       There  wag    thus   a   perfect   correspondency 


6  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

between  the  permanent  duties  and  officers,  and  on  this 
scriptural  basis  Calvin  planned  his  system.  Resting 
chiefly  on  i  Tim.  v.  17,  where  a  distinction  seemed  to 
him  to  be  drawn  between  Presbyters  who  only  rule 
and  Presbyters  who  both  rule  and  teach,  he  apportioned 
the  work  of  instruction  to  the  pastor ;  to  him  also,  in 
common  with  a  body  of  Presbyters,  "  seniors  selected 
from  the  people,"  was  entrusted  the  government  of  the 
congregation  ;  and  to  the  Deacons  was  assigned  the  care 
of  the  poor.  While  claiming  scriptural  authority  for  the 
Presbyterian  system  thus  sketched,  Calvin  was,  however, 
far  from  asserting  that  Presbyterianism  was  an  essential 
note  of  the  true  Church.  Other  Church  systems  were 
recognised  as  justifiable,  though  not  equally  supported  by 
Holy  Writ  nor  so  suitable  for  men. 

(3)  The  Independence  of  the  Church. — In  her  own 
sphere  the  Church,  according  to  Calvin's  teaching,  was 
independent,  subordinate  to  no  earthly  ruler,  and 
answerable  to  Christ  alone.  As  this  is  a  note  which 
has  sounded  loud  in  the  history  of  Presbyterianism,  so 
was  it  struck  clearly  by  the  Reformer.  Church  and 
State  were  declared  to  be  two  powers  appointed  by 
God  for  the  right  government  of  men,  the  one  in  things 
spiritual,  the  other  in  things  temporal.  Closely  allied  in 
purpose,  they  were  yet  sharply  divided  in  their  fields  of 
action,  and  must  in  no  wise  interfere  with  each  other  in 
their  respective  spheres.  Yet  as  allies  each  was  bound 
to  serve  the  other  when  called  upon  to  do  so.  Should 
Church  censure  fail  to  affect  an  offender,  the  State  might 
be  asked  to  lend  the  power  of  the  sword  ;  and  in  like 
manner  was  the  Church  bound  loyally  to  aid  the  State 
in  all  good. 

In  support  of  his  position,  Calvin  appealed  to  the 
teachings  of  Scripture,  early  history,  and  sound  practical 
reason.  Scripture  gave  him  his  organisation,  early 
history  bore  witness  to  its  practice,  and  sound  common 
sense  approved  its  wisdom. 

4.  Calvin  at  Geneva. — If  the  scheme  of  Church 
Government  thus  sketched  was  not  to  end  as  a  devout 


RESTORATION  OF  PRESBYTERIANISM      7 

imagination,  a  place  had  to  be  found  where  it  could 
be  tested  by  practical  application  to  the  life  of  men. 
Geneva  supplied  the  need.  In  this  Swiss  city  of 
20,000  inhabitants,  the  Reformed  doctrines  had  been 
preached  for  several  years  by  Farely  a  vigorous  and 
zealous  Frenchman,  and  in  1535,  mainly  through 
his  endeavours,  Protestantism  had  been  adopted  by  a 
vote  of  the  citizens.  The  Roman  Catholic  clergy 
were  banished  ;  stringent  laws  were  passed,  regulating 
the  manners  and  morals  of  the  citizens,  and  the  Gospel 
rule  of  life  was  solemnly  acknowledged  to  be  binding 
upon  all.  There  was  special  need  in  Geneva  of  this 
insistence  on  the  moral  side  of  Christianity ;  for  the  city 
had  become  notorious  for  its  evil  living.  But  to  his 
sorrow  Farel  found  his  triumph  to  be  but  fleeting.  The 
enemy  was  only  scotched,  not  killed.  The  Libertine 
party,  which  had  been  silenced  in  the  first  hours  of 
popular  enthusiasm,  gradually  recovered  its  ground,  and 
by  perverting  the  doctrine  of  Christian  liberty,  was 
fast  regaining  for  the  city  its  old  ill  fame.  Farel  was 
dismayed,  and  was  bewailing  the  destruction  of  his  work, 
when  tidings  reached  him  that  John  Calvin  had  arrived 
in  the  city,  and  was  intending  to  stay  the  night.  To 
the  perplexed  Reformer,  the  arrival  of  the  famous 
theologian  was  a  sign  from  God.  At  once  he  hastened 
to  Calvin's  lodging,  and  placing  before  him  the  circum- 
stances of  the  city,  entreated  him  to  stay  and  help  God's 
cause.  Calvin  heard  the  appeal  most  unwillingly,  for 
his  mind  was  set  on  other  things.  He  purposed  to 
hasten  on  to  Strasburg  and  there  devote  himself  to  those 
literary  employments  in  which  he  had  already  proved 
himself  a  master.  To  yield  to  Farel's  appeal  would 
mean  the  sacrifice  of  his  most  cherished  hopes,  and  so, 
believing  that  he  could  serve  the  Reformed  cause  better 
by  his  studies  than  in  any  other  way,  he  declined  the 
call.  But  Farel  would  take  no  denial.  *'  I  tell  you,"  he 
said,  "in  answer  to  this  pretence  of  your  studies,  in  the 
name  of  Almighty  God,  that  if  you  will  not  devote  your- 
self with  us  to  this  work  of  the  Lord,  the  Lord  will  curse 


8  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

you  as  one  seeking  not  Christ  so  much  as  himself." 
*'  By  this  imprecation,"  writes  Calvin,  "  I  was  so  stricken 
with  terror  that  I  desisted  from  the  journey  I  had  under- 
taken." It  was  a  crisis  in  the  Reformer's  life.  Hence- 
forward Calvin  was  a  man  of  action  quite  as  much  as 
of  letters. 

5.  First   Conflict  with  the   Civil   Power.— 

Having  taken  his  decision,  Calvin  set  to  work  with  a 
will,  and  strove  to  stem  the  rising  tide  of  wickedness. 
At  his  instigation,  the  old  laws  of  the  city  against 
drunkenness,  gambling,  immodest  dancing,  and  licentious 
living  were  re-enacted.  But  it  was  no  narrow  spirit  which 
prompted  this  step.  "I  do  not,"  he  says,  "condemn 
amusements  as  such :  dances  and  cards  are  not  in 
themselves  evil  ;  but  how  easily  these  pleasures  succeed 
in  making  slaves  of  those  who  are  addicted  to  them  ! 
Whenever  wrong-doing  has  become  an  old  established 
custom,  we  must  avoid  every  risk  of  falling  back  into  it." 
At  first  no  attempt  was  made  at  definite  Church  organisa- 
tion :  purity  and  uprightness  of  fife,  as  more  important, 
received  the  chief  attention.  But  when,  in  pursuance  of 
this  aim,  Calvin  proceeded  to  carry  out  his  principle  of 
the  Church's  independence  in  her  own  sphere,  and 
applied  ecclesiastical  censure  to  evil  -  doers,  without 
consulting  the  civic  authorities,  there  ensued  trouble. 
He  declined  to  admit  to  the  Lord's  Table  certain 
notorious  evil-livers.  To  the  magistrates  this  seemed  an 
invasion  of  their  prerogative,  and  they  ordered  the 
Reformers  to  withdraw  the  ban.  But  in  vain  :  Calvin 
and  Farel  refused  to  lower  the  standard  of  the  Church. 
It  was  a  refusal  which  led  to  an  open  breach,  and,  to  the 
delight  of  the  Libertine  party,  the  Reformers  were 
banished  from  the  city  (1538).  "Well,"  said  Calvin  on 
hearing  the  sentence,  "so  be  it ;  if  we  had  served  man 
this  would  be  a  bad  return,  but  we  serve  a  great  Master 
who  will  reward  us." 

6.  Calvin  in  Exile  (1538-1541).— For  the  next 

three  years  Calvin  lived  in  Strasburg,  where  he  ministered 
to  a  congregation  of  French  Protestant  refugees,  and  in 


GENEVA 


his  spare  moments  increased  his  acquaintance  with  other 
prominent  leaders  of  the  Reforming  movement.  Most 
important  was  the  close  friendship  he  now  formed  with 
Melancthon,  who  bridged  the  way  between  his  system  and 
the  Lutheran.  With  the  followers  of  Zwingli  also  he  came 
to  a  better  understanding,  which  was  helpful  for  a  time  in 
preserving  the  spiritual  unity  of  Protestant  Christendom. 
But  Geneva  had  not  lost  sight  of  him.  In  his  absence 
from  that  city  the  elements  of  disorder  found  opportunity 
to  develop,  and  lawless  scenes  came  to  be  of  frequent 
occurrence.  The  citizens  learned  by  unwelcome  ex- 
perience how  great  a  power  for  good  had  lain  in  that 
thin  slender  figure  with  the  pale  face  and  keen  dark 
eyes.  His  indomitable  will  and  lofty  character  were 
regretfully  remembered,  and  at  last,  when  political 
decline  as  well  as  moral  degeneracy  was  imminent,  they 
conquered  their  pride  and  invited  Calvin  to  return  to 
their  midst.  But  Calvin  shrank  from  going  back  to  the 
old  conflict.  "There  is  no  place  in  the  world,"  he 
wrote,  **  which  I  so  much  dread  as  Geneva."  And  it 
was  not  until  to  the  earnest  entreaties  of  friends  there 
were  added  the  representations  of  a  formal  embassy  from 
the  Genevan  civic  authorities,  that  he  at  last  yielded. 
But  in  so  doing  he  took  care  to  lay  down  certain  con- 
ditions which  in  the  coming  days  made  his  work  easier 
and  more  fruitful.  "  If  you  would  have  me  in  your 
city,"  he  wrote,  **  you  must  abolish  the  prevailing  sins  of 
Geneva.  ...  I  cannot  live  in  the  same  place  with  a 
Church  whose  discipline  is  in  ruins,  and  where  audacity 
in  evil-doing  prevails  unpunished."  The  conditions 
were  granted,  and  with  permission  to  establish  a  Church 
constitution  according  to  his  own  mind,  Calvin  re- 
entered (ieneva,  amid  shouts  of  welcome,  in  September 
1541. 

7.  The  Presbyterian  Ohurcli  of  Geneva.— No 

time  was  lost  in  taking  advantage  of  circumstances  so 
favourable.  On  the  day  after  his  arrival,  Calvin  re- 
quested the  Lesser  Civic  Council  to  appoint  six  of  its 
members  to  assist  him  and  the  other  ministers  of  the  city 


lo  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

in  drawing  up  a  definite  order  of  Government  for  the 
Church  of  Geneva.  This  was  done,  and  the  order  thus 
drawn  up,  after  being  submitted  to  the  Lesser  and  Greater 
Councils,  and  approved  by  both,  was  ratified  by  the 
assembly  of  the  people  on  20th  November  1541.  These 
were  the  celebrated  Ecclesiastical  Ordinances  of  the  Church 
of  Geneva.  The  day  of  their  adoption  may  be  regarded 
as  the  birthday  of  the  Modern  Presbyterian  Churches  ; 
and,  inasmuch  as  they  decided  the  constitution  of  the 
first  Presbyterian  Church,  they  deserve  careful  attention. 
From  a  constitutional  point  of  view  as  well  as  a  histori- 
cal, the  most  important  provisions  were  those  dealing 
with  the  offices  and  courts  of  the  Church  : — 

{a)  The  0£5.ces  of  the  Church. — Four  classes  of 

office-bearers  were  recognised  as  requisite  for  the  right 
administration  of  the  Church  of  Christ.  These  were — 
Pastors  (also  called  Bishops,  Presbyters,  and  Ministers), 
Teachers,  Elders,  and  Deacons.  To  each  office  were 
assigned  distinctive  duties. 

(i)  The  Pastors  had  as  their  special  duty  the  preaching 
of  the  Gospel  and  the  administration  of  the  Sacraments, 
while  in  association  with  the  Elders  they  had  also  to  see 
to  the  right  exercise  of  ecclesiastical  discipline.  They 
were  to  be  nominated  to  their  office  by  the  pastors 
already  in  the  Church,  and  to  be  appointed  by  the  State, 
with  the  approval  of  the  people. 

(2)  The  Teachers  were  entrusted  with  the  training  cf 
the  students  in  pure  theology,  and  the  general  education 
of  the  young  of  the  community. 

(3)  The  Elders,  fourteen  in  number,  were  to  be  God- 
fearing men  of  unstained  character,  with  the  oversight 
of  the  morals  of  the  community  as  their  special  work. 
In  addition  to  their  moral  qualifications,  they  required 
to  be  members  of  one  or  other  of  the  civic  councils,  the 
Lesser  Ci\'ic  Council  nominating  them  with  the  approval 
of  the  pastors,  and  the  Greater  Council  confirming. 
Practically  they  formed  a  "  Civic  Committee  on  Morals," 
appointed  to  act  along  with  the  pastors  of  the  churches. 
They  were  elected  to  their  office  at  first  for  a  year,  at 


GENEVA 


the  expiry  of  which  the  Lesser  Council  either  discharged 
them  or  confirmed  them  for  Hfe. 

(4)  The  Deacons  were  likewise  to  be  men  of  good 
character  and  blameless  reputation,  and  were  chosen  by 
the  ci\nc  authorities.  Their  work  was  that  of  caring  for 
the  sick  and  destitute. 

{b)  The  Courts  of  the  Church. —While  each 

official  had  his  own  special  duties  assigned  to  him,  all 
were  responsible  to  the  Consistory,  the  supreme  court  or 
council  of  the  local  church.  This  court  was  composed 
of  all  the  pastors  with  all  the  elders,  and  met  weekly 
under  the  presidency  of  one  of  the  syndics  or  magistrates 
of  the  city.  To  the  Consistory,  at  its  weekly  meeting, 
the  pastors  and  elders  from  the  different  districts  brought 
reports  of  any  offences  which  had  been  committed  against 
the  moral  law,  and  judgment  was  dealt  accordingly. 
Excommunication  was  the  severest  punishment  in  the 
power  of  the  court  to  inflict ;  but  notice  of  all  such 
sentences  had  to  be  sent  to  the  civnc  authorities,  who  might, 
if  they  saw  fit,  add  civil  penalties  to  the  ecclesiastical. 

A  minor  council  which  was  established  was  the 
Venerable  Company.  This  body,  composed  of  all  the 
pastors  of  the  town,  met  monthly  for  the  purpose  of 
mutual  admonition,  and  for  testing  the  qualifications  of 
aspirants  to  the  pastorate. 

8.  Defects  of  the  Ordinances.— In  these  Ordi- 
nances the  hand  of  Calvin  is  very  visible,  but  clearly 
visible  also  is  the  influence  of  the  State.  The  Institutes 
had  already  shown  what  Calvin  would  have  the  Church 
to  be  ;  and  in  so  far  as  the  Ordinances  differ  from  the 
Institutes— i\vQ  Church  as  realised  from  the  Church  as 
devised — is  to  be  seen  the  extent  to  which  Calvin  had 
to  bend  to  circumstances.  The  lofty  ideal  of  a  Church 
independent  in  her  own  sphere,  and  co-equal  with  the 
State,  was  too  high  for  the  cautious  burghers  of  Geneva  ; 
and  v/hile  granting  much  to  their  religious  leader,  they 
yet  took  care  to  maintain  a  strong  hold  over  the  Church 
they  were  establishing.  Their  caution  is  most  noticeable 
in  the  regulations  as  to  the  election  of  Elders,  who  were 


1^  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

in  no  respect  to  be  the  choice  of  the  congregation,  but 
were  to  be  selected  from  the  Council  and  by  the  Council. 
Only  in  so  far  as  they  were  men  of  Christian  character 
were  they  representative  of  the  Christian  community. 
And  as  if  still  further  to  maintain  its  supremacy,  the 
State  insisted  on  the  Consistory,  the  Court  of  the  Church, 
having  as  its  president  a  syndic,  an  officer  of  the  State. 
These  were  serious  defects  ;  yet,  despite  their  presence, 
the  new  Church  organisation  was  a  decided  advance  in  the 
direction  of  ecclesiastical  independence  over  anything  the 
Reformed  world  had  yet  seen.  In  the  Consistory,  more- 
over, a  court  was  established  which  was  a  real  power  for 
good,  working  honestly  for  the  improvement  of  the  moral 
life  of  men  ;  and  if  in  its  later  career  it  was  guilty  of 
excesses,  as  it  certainly  was,  yet  at  first  it  was  an 
evidence  to  the  world  that  the  Reformed  Church  aimed 
at  a  real  reform  in  the  life  of  her  children  —  that 
religion  with  her  meant  good  living  quite  as  much  as 
right  thinking.  To  Calvin  belongs  the  glory  of  em- 
phasising this  note  of  the  true  Church — that  she  is  a 
power  for  righteousness. 

9.  The  Church  at  Work. — Accepting  the  scheme 
as  a  compromise,  Calvin  immediately  proceeded  to  carry 
it  into  effect.  The  weekly  Consistory  was  established, 
and  showed  that  it  was  possessed  of  real  power  which 
it  meant  to  exercise.  Vice  was  so  energetically  searched 
out  that  the  moral  character  of  Geneva  speedily  im- 
proved ;  but,  unfortunately,  in  its  desire  for  a  thorough 
reform  the  Consistory  allowed  its  zeal  to  outrun  its 
discretion.  Stringent  laws  were  passed  regulating  the 
minute  details  of  ordinary  life,  and  civil  punishments 
were  attached  to  ecclesiastical  and  moral  offences,  out  of 
all  proportion  to  their  gravity.  Novel -reading  was 
forbidden,  as  also  all  the  usual  accompaniments  of  the 
lighter  side  of  social  life — singing,  dancing,  and  the 
drama.  The  unjustifiable  stringency  of  the  new  rules 
naturally  irritated  a  large  section  of  the  people  ;  but  so 
great  was  the  prosperity  of  the  general  community  that 
the  large   majority   sided   with   the   Reformer,  and   the 


GENE  VA  13 


Church  grew  and  prospered.  Several  struggles  there 
were,  severe  and  critical,  but  from  all  the  Church  emerged 
victorious.  Of  these  the  most  tedious  in  its  course  and 
the  most  dangerous  in  its  crisis  was  the  renewal  of  the 
old  fight  with  the  Council  as  to  the  right  of  the  Church 
to  inflict  the  penalty  of  excommunication  without  con- 
sulting the  civil  powers.  For  seven  years  the  matter 
was  debated  more  or  less  actively,  the  Council  insisting 
on  an  excommunicated  member  being  restored  to  mem- 
bership, and  Calvin  in  the  name  of  the  Consistory 
refusing.  Opinions  on  the  subject  were  asked  from  the 
leading  teachers  of  Protestant  Christendom,  who,  without 
exception,  supported  Calvin;  and  finally,  in  1557,  the 
struggle  ended  in  his  favour  by  the  Greater  Council 
giving  a  decision  which  established  the  spiritual  inde- 
pendence of  the  Genevan  Church.  The  notice  of 
excommunication,  which  the  Ordinances  had  directed 
to  be  sent  by  the  Consistory  to  the  Lesser  Council,  was 
recognised  as  in  no  respect  conferring  authority  on  the 
Council  to  revise  the  Consistory's  decision,  but  was 
merely  information  for  guidance,  in  the  event  of  civil 
penalties  being  deemed  desirable. 

10.  Growth  of  the  Church's  Independence.— 

The  hard-won  victory  was  carefully  followed  up.  Now 
that  the  independence  of  the  Consistory  in  the  exercise 
of  spiritual  discipline  had  been  acknowledged,  Calvin 
sought  to  have  removed  from  the  Church's  procedure 
whatever  forms  or  customs  implied  subordination  to 
the  civil  power.  Chief  of  these  was  the  presence  in 
the  Consistory,  as  official  president,  of  one  of  the 
syndics  with  his  staff  of  office.  From  the  first  this 
arrangement  had  been  obnoxious  to  Calvin,  but  it  was 
one  of  the  many  things  he  bore  with  because  of  the 
hardness  of  the  time,  and  now  when  the  times  had  im- 
proved his  patience  was  rewarded.  Recognising  the 
incongruity  of  the  custom,  the  Greater  Council  in  1560 
directed  that  in  future  a  syndic  be  not,  as  such,  presi- 
dent of  the  Consistory  ;  but  that,  in  the  event  of  one  of 
the  two  elders  chosen  from  the  Lesser  Council  being 


14  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

a  syndic,  he  be  the  president — as  an  elder,  however, 
and  not  as  a  syndic.  It  was  again  a  compromise,  but 
this  time  the  gain  was  on  the  side  of  the  Church. 

In  Hke  manner  the  other  grievance  of  the  mode  of 
Election  of  Elders  was  considerably  redressed.  The  initial 
choice  remained  as  before  with  the  Council,  but  there 
was  now  added  as  a  necessary  accompaniment  the 
approval  of  the  congregation.  In  this  way,  by  a  steady, 
patient  struggle  lasting  many  years,  was  gained  the 
acknowledgment  of  the  Church  as  an  independent 
organisation,  closely  allied  with  the  State  but  ruled 
over  by  officers  approved  of  by  herself.  Step  by  step  the 
Ecclesiastical  Ordinances  were  brought  into  correspond- 
ence with  the  plan  first  sketched  in  the  Institutes,  the 
growing  influence  of  the  great  Reformer  making  the 
modification  easier  of  accomplishment.  And  with  great 
benefit  to  the  city  of  Geneva  was  this  influence  exercised. 
From  being  noted  for  profligacy  it  became  renowned  for 
virtue.  Its  trade  revived  and  its  inhabitants  largely 
increased  ;  and  in  testimony  of  its  moral  condition  the 
evidence  of  John  Knox,  who  lived  here  from  1555  to 
1559,  may  well  be  quoted.  "In  my  heart,"  he  wrote 
to  a  friend,  "  I  could  have  wished,  yea  and  cannot 
cease  to  wish,  that  it  might  please  God  to  guide  and 
conduct  yourself  to  this  place,  where  I  neither  fear  nor 
eshame  to  say  is  the  most  perfect  school  of  Christ  that 
ever  was  in  the  earth  since  the  days  of  the  Apostles.  In 
other  places  I  confess  Christ  to  be  truly  preached  ;  but 
manners  and  religion  to  be  so  sincerely  reformed  I  have 
not  yet  seen  in  any  other  place  beside." 

1 1.  The  Blot  on  the  Genevan  Church.— With  so 

much  that  is  fair  and  praiseworthy  in  the  Genevan 
Church  of  Calvin,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  there 
should  be  a  reverse  side  to  the  picture.  In  this  case  the 
reverse  shows  intolerance,  with  persecution  as  its  result. 
The  excessive  censorship  over  the  morals  of  the  citizens, 
and  the  infliction  of  civil  punishments  for  breaches  of 
the  very  strict  ecclesiastical  code,  were  without  doubt 
blemishes  on  Calvin's  rule  ;  and  though  it  may  be  pleaded 


GENEVA  xs 


in  extenuation  that  they  were  faults  resulting  from  an 
excess  of  virtue,  yet  faults  they  must  remain.  But  great 
though  these  errors  of  intolerance  were,  they  pale  in 
the  general  estimation  before  the  intolerance  which  sent 
Michael  Servetus  to  the  stake,  for  errors  of  belief, 
in  the  year  1553.  Of  this  action  Calvin  approved. 
Servetus,  in  his  book  The  Errors  of  the  Trinity,  had 
lampooned  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  Godhead,  and 
in  a  later  publication  had  boldly  advanced  pantheistic 
views  of  the  universe.  A  spirit  of  bravado  seems  to 
have  brought  him  to  Geneva,  where,  after  a  pro- 
tracted trial,  in  which  he  shocked  his  judges'  ears 
with  blasphemies,  he  was  condemned  to  be  burned  at 
the  stake.  In  the  prosecution  Calvin  took  an  active 
part,  and  though  he  tried  to  have  the  mode  of  death 
altered  to  one  less  painful,  yet  to  the  sentence  of  death  he 
consented.  Sorely  has  his  memory  had  to  atone  for  his 
unchristian  severity  ;  yet  in  passing  condemnation  on 
the  deed,  it  has  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  not  Calvin 
only  but  the  whole  Protestant  Church  of  his  day,  in- 
cluding men  like  Bullinger  and  the  mild  Melancthon, 
approved  of  the  action.  Not  yet  had  the  day  of  liberty 
of  conscience  fully  dawned. 

12.  The  Academy  of  Geneva. — Against  Calvin's 

zeal  for  the  suppression  of  false  teaching  are  to  be 
placed  his  efforts  for  the  dissemination  of  the  true.  Of 
these  the  founding  of  the  famous  Academy  of  Geneva  was 
the  greatest  and  most  fruitful.  By  his  books,  pamphlets, 
and  general  correspondence  he  acted  all  his  life  as  the 
spiritual  guide  of  the  Reformed  Churches,  keeping  in 
touch  with  the  leaders  of  the  movement  in  every 
European  country.  But  a  more  permanent  agency  for 
teaching  the  Reformed  doctrine  was  seen  to  be  required, 
and  accordingly  in  1558  there  was  founded  in  Geneva 
the  famous  Theological  Academy,  with  Theodore  Beza 
as  its  first  rector.  Calvin  acted  as  one  of  the  lecturers 
in  addition  to  his  many  other  duties,  and  with  him 
were  associated  other  teachers  of  ability.  The  response 
of  Protestantism   was   great  and    immediate.      In   the 


i6  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

first  year  of  the  Academy's  existence  800  students  of 
different  nationalities  were  enrolled.  From  France, 
Holland,  Germany,  England,  and  Scotland  they  flocked 
to  Geneva,  and  drank  in  eagerly  the  teaching  they 
received.  They  became  filled  with  admiration  of  the 
Church  System  and  Life  which  they  saw,  and  on  their 
return  to  their  own  lands  laboured  by  speech  and  action 
to  establish  Genevan  thought  and  ways  amongst  their 
own  peoples.  Thus  the  Genevan  Church  became  the 
mother  of  many. 

13.  Calvin's  Work. — On  27th  May  1564,  Calvin 
died,  full  of  honours  though  not  of  years.  His  life  had 
been  comparatively  a  short  one — only  fifty-five  years — 
but  in  lasting  results  few  lives  can  compare  with  his. 
Alike  as  a  teacher  and  an  organiser,  he  holds  a  pro- 
minent place,  possessing  the  peculiar  merit  of  having 
combined  in  himself  excellence  in  both  departments. 
To  this  combination  is  mainly  due  the  greatness  and 
enduring  character  of  his  work.  The  legacy  which  he 
left  to  the  world  may  be  described  as  threefold,  and 
was  the  gift  partly  of  the  theologian,  partly  of  the 
organiser.      It  comprised — 

(i)  An  Elevating  Theology. — At  the  basis  of  his 
teaching  was  the  great  doctrine  of  the  Sovereignty  of 
God  over  all  men  and  things.  The  direct  responsibility 
of  every  man  to  his  Divine  Sovereign  was  so  emphasised 
that  men  became  impressed  with  a  holy  fear  of  God, 
which  cast  out  all  other  fear.  The  doctrine  of  Election, 
which  is  the  point  in  Calvin's  theology  most  objected  to, 
is  but  the  logical  sequence  of  the  Divine  Sovereignty, 
and  in  its  application  to  life  helped  greatly  to  harden  the 
moral  fibre  of  the  men  of  the  time.  To  men  who  felt 
themselves  to  be  called  by  God,  and  predestined  to  a 
certain  work,  the  first  and  last  duty  was  to  accomplish 
the  work  and  fulfil  the  destiny.  Teaching  such  as  this 
ennobled  all  who  received  it,  lifted  them  out  of  the 
temporal  into  relations  with  the  eternal,  and  encouraged 
them  to  work  or  suffer,  live  or  die  in  the  cause  of  their 
Almighty  King. 


GENEVA  17 


(2)  A  Church  for  the  People — because  ^the  people. — 
The  new  dignity  which  had  been  conferred  on  men  by 
their  direct  relationship  and  responsibility  to  God  found 
expression  in  the  new  place  accorded  them  in  the 
organisation  of  the  Church.  No  longer  were  they  to  be 
ruled  over  by  priests,  but,  as  themselves  priests  unto 
God,  they  were  to  regulate  and  direct  the  God-appointed 
institution.  As  the  theology  had  called  for  a  higher  life 
in  the  individual,  so  the  doctrine  concerning  the  Church 
ensured  a  higher  life  in  the  community.  The  Church 
was  henceforth  to  be  the  care  of  all. 

(3)  A  Centre  from  which  Presbyterianism  might 
radiate. — This  was  the  legacy  of  the  man  of  action. 
Other  teachers  had  emphasised  the  Sovereignty  of  God 
and  the  Priesthood  of  Believers,  but  Calvin  did  more. 
He  embodied  these  truths  in  actual  form,  and  in  the 
small  city  of  Geneva,  by  a  life  of  ceaseless  action,  planted 
firmly  a  living  Church,  where  God's  Sovereignty  was 
ranked  above  the  sovereignty  of  man,  and  where  the 
popular  voice  was  heard  in  the  administration  of  the 
Church.  From  Geneva  the  sound  of  the  new  move- 
ment went  out  into  all  the  world,  and  from  the  Church 
there  established  the  greater  part  of  Protestantism  took 
its  shape.  In  this  respect  Calvin's  work  stands  in  striking 
contrast  to  the  subsequent  history  of  the  work  of  the 
German  Reformer  Luther.  Wide  indeed  was  Luther's 
influence  as  a  Christian  teacher,  but  as  a  Church 
organiser  it  scarcely  went  beyond  the  frontiers  of  the 
Fatherland.  On  the  other  hand,  the  scheme  of  Church 
government  re-discovered  and  re-established  by  Calvin 
passed  far  beyond  the  walls  of  Geneva,  was  welcomed 
by  France,  the  Reformer's  native  land,  then  by  Holland, 
the  Rhine  Palatinate,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  —  and  is 
now  world-wide. 


i8  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 


CHAPTER   II 

THE   PRESBYTERIAN    CHURCH    IN    FRANCE 

BEFORE  ever  Germany  was  roused  by  the  voice  of 
Luther  the  Reformation  had  begun  in  France.  So 
early  as  1509  the  scholarly  Lefevre  had  sounded  the 
first  note  of  coming  change  in  his  thoroughly  Protestant 
and  evangelical  commentaries,  and  for  a  time  the  seed 
thus  sown  was  suffered  to  bring  forth  fruit  freely.  Earnest 
ecclesiastics,  like  Bri9onnet,  Bishop  of  Meaux,  and  evan- 
gelists like  Farel,  had  their  labours  helped  by  the  com- 
placent inaction  of  the  Roman  Church  authorities  as  well 
as  by  the  royal  favour  of  Francis  I.  But  in  1535  a 
change  came  over  both  Church  and  King,  and  the  new 
views,  from  being  despised  or  indulged,  were  proscribed 
as  heretical  and  disloyal.  Heresy  became  a  capital 
crime,  and  for  twenty  years  martyrdoms  were  common. 
Yet  despite  the  persecution  the  leaven  spread,  and  in 
the  spreading  of  it  no  agency  was  so  active  as  the  Church 
of  Calvin  at  Geneva.  By  countless  letters  and  willing 
messengers  from  the  great  exiled  son  of  France,  the 
suffering  Protestants  were  helped  to  endure,  and  though 
no  Church  was  as  yet  organised  the  Reformed  Faith 
made  steady  progress. 

I.  The  First  Congregation.— Passing  strange  was 
the  manner  of  the  formation  of  the  first  congregation. 
One  September  evening  in  1555,  when  a  small  company 
of  Protestants  in  Paris  gathered  secretly,  as  was  their 
wont,  for  prayer,  they  found  their  host,  La  Ferriere,  a 
Frenchman  of  noble  birth,  in  great  trouble  as  to  how 
to  arrange  for  the  baptism  of  his  infant  child.  Roman 
rites  he  would  not  have,  and  Reformed  rites  he  could 
not  obtain  nearer  than  Geneva.     In  the  dilemma,  and 


THE  CHURCH  IN  FRANCE 


at  the  earnest  entreaty  of  La  Ferri^re,  the  company 
decided  on  the  novel  and  important  step  of  forming 
themselves  into  a  congregation,  and  electing  one  of  their 
number  to  be  their  pastor.  Thus  was  bom  the  first 
congregation  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  France.  From 
Geneva  most  of  the  company  had  derived  their  faith, 
and  the  Genevan  model  of  church  order  was  accordingly 
adopted.  To  the  pastorate  they  called  La  Riviere,  a 
young  French  noble,  who  had  been  educated  in  Geneva  ; 
elders  and  deacons  were  likewise  chosen,  and  a  regular 
Consistory  formed.  The  effect  of  this  unwonted  step 
upon  the  scattered  Protestants  of  France  was  marvellous. 
Everywhere  they  took  it  as  the  signal  to  organise,  and 
so  heartily  did  they  respond  that  within  three  years  there 
were  2000  similar  congregations  dotted  over  the  country. 

2.  The  National  Synod.— The  rapid  growth  of  the 
Church,  which  was  thus  revealed,  soon  led  to  a  develop- 
ment of  the  Presbyterian  principle  beyond  the  point  which 
had  been  reached  by  Calvin  in  Geneva,  In  that  Swiss 
town,  with  its  four  congregations  and  limited  area,  one 
common  consistorial  court  had  been  sufficient  for  the 
Church's  needs ;  but  in  the  wider  area  of  France,  with 
congregations  numbering  2000,  something  more  was 
required  if  the  Church's  unity  and  discipline  were  to  be 
maintained.  A  supreme  authority  over  all  the  congrega- 
tions was  felt  to  be  a  necessity,  and  accordingly  the 
Church  in  Paris  took  action.  Invitations  were  forwarded 
to  the  sister  congregations  throughout  France  asking 
them  to  send  delegates  to  a  conference  to  consider  the 
needs  of  the  Church,  and  in  response  there  assembled  in 
Paris,  on  26th  May  1559,  150  delegates,  to  constitute 
what  was  afterwards  known  as  The  First  National 
Synod.  They  met  secretly,  ''in  defiance  of  almost 
certain  death  "  ;  yet  with  a  calm  trust  in  God  and  a  firm 
faith  in  the  future  of  their  cause,  they  there  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  France. 

3.  The  Work  of  the  Synod.— The  Synod's  work 

was  to  give  •'a  ihe  Reformed  congregations  of  France  a 
creed  and  a    xmstitution.     In  both  departments  Calvin 


; 


20  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

was  the  teacher  followed.  His  was  the  theology  as  well 
as  the  actual  draft  of  the  Confessio  Gallica  there  framed, 
and  his  too,  so  far  as  circumstances  allowed,  was  the 
constitution  adopted.  What  differences  there  were,  from 
the  constitution  obtaining  in  Geneva,  resulted  either  from 
the  necessary  severance  of  Church  from  State  in  France 
or  from  the  greater  size  of  the  French  Church. 
/  Three  classes  of  officers  were  recognised  as  having 
authority  over  each  congregation — the  pastor,  elders,  and 
deacons — who  in  common  council  formed  the  Consistory. 
On  the  first  formation  of  a  congregation  all  office-bearers 
were  to  be  elected  by  the  vote  of  the  people,  but  later 
vacancies  were  to  be  filled  by  the  choice  of  the  Con- 
sistory—  an  ^^aristocratic"  principle  to  which  the 
French  Church  long  strictly  adhered.  The  next  step  of 
the  Assembly  was  to  group  the  various  congregations 
together  in  graded  Councils  or  Synods,  similar  to  those 
now  existing  in  all  Presbyterian  Churches.  These  were, 
— ( I )  Provincial  Synods,  one  for  each  province,  consisting 
of  all  the  pastors  with  one  elder  or  deacon  from  every  con- 
gregation, which  were  to  meet  twice  a  year,  to  decide 
appeals  from  congregations,  effect  transfers  of  pastors 
from  one  charge  to  another  where  desirable,  and  generally 
supervise  the  churches  of  the  province  ;  and  (2)  General 
Synods,  composed  of  delegates  from  each  Consistory, 
and  possessed  of  supreme  authority  over  the  Church, 
which  were  to  be  summoned  in  case  of  special  need. 

Manifest  defects  in  the  scheme  thus  adopted  were 
rectified  by  later  Synods,  which,  by  interposing  a  council 
between  the  Consistory  and  the  Provincial  Synod,  called 
the  Collogue  (the  "Presbytery"  of  the  Scottish  Church), 
and  by  drawing  the  delegates  to  the  General  Synod  from 
the  Provincial  Synods  instead  of  from  the  Consistories, 
completed  the  conciliar  system  of  Church  government. 
There  was  thus  given  to  the  Church  a  compact  unity 
which  was  to  prove  most  useful  in  the  troubled  period 
of  her  history  about  to  begin.  Hitherto  she  had  lived 
apart  from  the  world,  and,  alone  with  God,  had  increased 
in  faith  :  henceforth  she  was  to  be  tried  in  the  political 


THE  CHURCH  IN  FRANCE 


arena,  and  for  the  new  experience  Providence  was  pre- 
paring her  by  strengthening  her  bonds  of  union. 

4.  The  Reformed  Clmrcli  in  Politics.— The 

year  1559  was  a  momentous  one  for  the  Church.  Not 
only  did  she  then  adopt  a  settled  constitution— a  fact 
which  gained  for  her  adherents  the  name  Huguenots  , 
{Eid-genossen,  or  oath  comrades)— but  then  for  the  first 
time  did  she,  thVough  her  success  among  the  aristocracy 
of  France,  become  linked  with  one  of  the  parties  of  the 
State.  The  Huguenots  by  this  time  included  in  their 
number  the  leaders  of  the  Bourbons,  one  of  the  two 
great  political  parties,  Anthony,  King  of  Navarre,  his 
brother  Louis,  Duke  of  Conde,  and  Admiral  Cohgny. 
It  was  unavoidable  that  the  adherence  of  such  men  should 
give  to  the  Reformed  Church  a  political  character.  Nor 
were  the  Huguenots  unwilling  to  accept  the  situation. 
They  saw  troubles  looming  in  the  near  future,  and  were 
glad  to  have  for  their  leaders  men  of  mark  and  political 
power.  But  the  open  identification  with  the  Bourbons, 
though  increasing  the  Church's  material  strength,  was 
not  an  unmixed  advantage,  as  it  also  added  to  the 
animosity  of  the  opposing  Romanist  faction  of  the 
Guises.  And  unfortunately  for  the  peace  of  the  Church 
the  times  were  peculiarly  favourable  for  faction  fights, 
since,  after  the  death  of  King  Henry  II.,  in  1559,  first 
one  boy  king,  Francis  II.,  and  then  another,  Charles  IX., 
was  called  to  occupy  the  throne.  The  minorities  of 
kings  in  past  times  were  rarely  peaceful  times  for  their 
countries,  nor  was  it  otherwise  with  France  in  the 
sixteenth  century. 

5.  Catherine  de  Medici.— Most  prominent  of  all 

the  notabilities  of  the  day  was  Catherine  de  Medici,  the 
Queen-mother,  who  was  recognised  as  guardian  of  the 
young  King  Charles  on  his  accession,  at  ten  years  of 
age,  to  the  throne  of  France.  Catherine's  position  was 
extremely  difficult.  She  found  herself  confronted  by  two 
powerful  parties,  each  a  danger  to  the  throne,  but, 
fortunately  for  her,  hostile  to  each  other  and  separated 
by    the    double   gulf  of  politics   and    religion.       Thus 


aa  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

circumstanced,  she  adopted  and  steadily  maintained  a 
policy  of  unblushing  opportunism,  playing  off  one  party 
against  the  other,  Huguenot  and  Bourbon  against 
Romanist  and  Guise,  favouring  each  as  occasion  required, 
but  never  allowing  either  to  get  complete  victory.  In 
the  earlier  years  of  her  regency,  as  the  growing  power 
of  the  Guises  seemed  to  her  to  require  a  check,  the 
Huguenots  profited  most  by  this  policy.  Toleration  of 
the  Reformed  Faith  was  proclaimed  ;  and  at  Poissy 
(1561)  was  held  a  famous  conference,  when,  in  the 
presence  of  royalty,  a  discussion  took  place  on  the 
theological  points  at  issue  between  Romanist  and 
Huguenot,  the  Huguenots  being  represented  by  the 
cultured  and  scholarly  Beza.  As  was  usual  with  such 
debates,  the  conference  ended  with  each  side  uncon- 
vinced ;  yet  it  was  not  without  some  good  results,  as  was 
seen  a  year  later,  when  the  Edict  of  St.  Germain  (1562) 
granted  permission  to  the  Huguenots  to  meet  for  worship 
outside  the  towns,  on  condition  of  their  giving  up  the 
churches  they  had  seized.  Meagre  enough  the  measure 
seems,  but  by  the  leading  Protestants  it  was  welcomed. 
"If  we  have  our  religion,"  said  Coligny,  **what  more 
do  we  want?"  while  to  Calvin  it  seemed  the  beginning 
of  the  end.  **  If  the  liberty  promised  in  the  edict  last," 
he  wrote,  "  the  papacy  will  fall  to  the  ground  of  itself." 

6.  The  Drawing  of  the  Sword.— The  condition 
attached  to  Calvin's  prophecy  was  not  fulfilled.  Stinted 
though  the  measure  was  it  proved  too  liberal  for  the 
Guises,  who  immediately  set  to  work  to  render  it  fruit- 
less. Anthony  of  Navarre  was  won  over  to  their  side  by 
fair  promises,  though  fortunately  for  the  Huguenots  his 
noble  Queen,  Jeanne  of  Navarre,  in  whose  hands  lay  the 
training  of  their  future  leader,  her  son  Henry,  proved 
more  steadfast.  "  If  I  had  my  kingdom  in  one  hand, 
and  my  son  in  the  other,"  she  said,  "  I  would  cast  both 
into  the  sea,  rather  than  go  to  mass."  But  the  defection 
of  her  husband  was  a  sore  blow  to  the  cause  she  loved, 
and  so  emboldened  the  Guisian  party  that  at  Vassy,  on 
a  Sunday  morning  in  March  1562,  they  drew  the  sword 


THE  CHURCH  IN  FRANCE  23 

and  massacred  the  Huguenots  of  the  place  as  they  were 
at  divine  service.  It  was  the  beginning  of  evils.  Soon 
the  fury  spread  to  other  towns.  Thousands  were  slain, 
the  dead  in  Toulouse  alone  numbering  3000.  In 
self-defence  the  Huguenots  were  now  forced  to  take 
up  arms,  and  for  thirty  years,  with  the  exception  of 
brief  periods  of  truce,  France  was  one  great  battlefield. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  struggle,  the  details  of  which 
must  be  sought  in  secular  histories,  the  fortunes  of  war 
went  against  the  Huguenots,  yet  so  stubbornly  was  the 
contest  waged,  that  the  conquered  party  was  able  at 
each  truce  to  extort  terms  of  toleration.  Of  these  the 
most  favourable  were  the  terms  obtained  at  the  close  of 
the  third  war,  when,  on  the  fatal  field  of  Jarnac,  Conde 
was  slain  and  the  Huguenots  routed.  To  the  Queen- 
mother  the  complete  triumph  of  the  Guises  seemed  then 
so  imminent,  that  she  insisted  on  peace  being  concluded, 
which  was  accordingly  done  by  the  Treaty  of  St. 
Germain  (1569).  Liberty  of  worship  was  granted  in  all 
towns  save  Paris,  and  as  a  security  to  the  Huguenots 
they  were  put  in  possession  of  four  fortified  towns,  La 
Rochelle,  Montauban,  Cognac,  and  La  Charite.  As  a 
guarantee  of  good  faith  the  measure  was  satisfactory,  but 
it  had  the  evil  effect  of  marking  off,  more  distinctly  than 
ever,  Huguenot  from  Romanist.  The  Huguenots  were 
now  a  nation  within  a  nation,  possessing  fortresses  and 
armies  of  their  own. 

7.  St.  Bartholomew's  Day.— Following  the  pass- 
ing of  the  treaty  came  a  brief  period  of  Huguenot 
prosperity.  To  end  the  wars  the  Queen  -  mother 
arranged  a  marriage  between  her  daughter  Margaret  and 
the  young  Huguenot  Prince,  Henry  of  Navarre,  and 
invited  the  prominent  leaders  of  the  Huguenots  to  court, 
to  witness  the  espousals.  Among  others  of  note  went 
Admiral  Coligny,  when  so  great  was  the  impression 
made  by  the  noble  old  man,  that  the  young  King 
Charles  could  scarce  bear  to  be  separated  from  his  side. 
A  strange  friendship  it  was,  and  fraught  with  most  evil 
consequences.       To   the    Queen -mother   it   seemed    to 


24     THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

portend  the  loss  of  her  influence  over  her  son  and  the 
triumph  of  the  Huguenots,  and  accordingly,  true  to  her 
principles,  she  veered  round  to  the  side  of  the  Guises. 
They  were  jubilant ;  and  so  sedulously  fanned  the  flame 
of  her  resentment,  that  in  an  evil  hour  a  general  massacre 
of  the  Huguenots  then  gathered  in  Paris  was  resolved 
upon.  No  time  was  lost  in  carrying  the  resolution  into 
effect,  and  shortly  before  the  dawn  of  St.  Bartholomew's 
Day,  24th  August  1572,  the  great  bell  of  the  Cathedral 
of  St.  Germain  tolled  out  the  signal  to  the  assassins. 
Thoroughly  they  did  their  work,  sparing  neither  age  nor 
sex.  Distinguished  by  a  white  band  on  the  arm  and  a 
white  cross  on  the  hat — strange  emblems  for  such  a 
work — the  murderers  scoured  through  the  city,  sacking 
every  Protestant  house  and  slaying  every  Protestant  they 
found.  Among  the  first  to  fall  was  the  aged  Coligny, 
who,  when  the  blows  were  raining  upon  him,  cried  out 
to  his  attendants,  with  rare  forge tfulness  of  self,  "  Save 
yourselves,  my  friends  ;  I  have  long  been  ready  to  die." 
For  seven  days  the  cruel  work  went  on.  Then  the 
other  towns  in  France,  catching  the  madness,  repeated 
the  atrocities,  and  before  the  lust  for  blood  had  been 
satisfied  70,000  Huguenots  had  perished. 

8.  Result  of  tlie  Massacre. — Atrocious  as  a  deed, 
the  massacre  as  a  stroke  of  policy  proved  a  failure. 
Says  the  Abbe  Crillon,  a  Roman  Catholic  historian  of 
the  time,  "  The  Court  thought  to  drown  Calvinism  in 
the  blood  of  its  defenders,  but  the  hydra  resumed  new 
vigour."  And  so  it  proved.  The  Guises  had  overshot 
the  mark.  Their  ambition  and  cruelty  excited  such 
suspicion  and  aversion  in  the  moderate  Roman  Catholics 
that  a  split  in  the  Roman  Catholic  party  ensued.  The 
moderates,  who  were  known  as  the  Politicals,  separated 
from  the  extremists,  and  joined  hands  with  the  Huguenots, 
in  whose  success,  under  their  young  leader  Henry  of 
Navarre,  they  now  saw  the  only  hope  of  France's 
political  safety.  Their  accession,  raising  as  it  did  the 
force  at  Henry's  back  to  50,000  men,  made  the  united 
party  so  formidable  that  Catherine   and  the  new  king, 


I 


THE  CHURCH  IN  FRANCE  25 

Henry  III.,  hastened  to  conclude  peace  on  terms 
most  favourable  to  the  Huguenots  (1576).  But 
not  yet  was  a  lasting  peace  to  be  obtained. 
Enraged  at  the  failure  of  their  scheme,  the  Guisian 
party  without  delay  devised  fresh  measures  for  extir- 
pating the  Huguenots,  and,  entering  into  an  alliance 
with  Spain,  formed  the  Holy  League,  whose  aim  was 
to  root  out  heresy  from  France.  The  Pope  gave  his 
blessing,  and  so  overawed  was  Henry  HI,  by  the 
magnitude  and  sanctity  of  the  union,  that  he  repented  of 
his  tolerance  and  plunged  France  once  more  into  civil 
war.  Fears  and  fightings  make  up  the  wretched  story 
of  the  next  H \e  years,  the  fears  leading  to  assassinations 
and  the  fii^hiiii,^-  resulting  in  varying  success.  At  last 
in  1589  came  the  beginning  of  the  end,  when,  by  the 
assassination  of  Henry  HI.  at  the  hands  of  a  Dominican 
monk,  Henry  of  Navarre,  the  Huguenot  leader,  was  left 
heir  to  the  throne  of  France.  But  between  the  heir 
and  his  inheritance  lay  a  fatal  obstacle,  in  his  religion. 
The  moderate  Roman  Catholics,  who  had  sided  with 
him  when  he  was  fighting  for  political  rights  and 
religious  freedom,  shrank  from  seeing  a  Huguenot  upon 
the  throne.  Paris  closed  its  gates  against  a  heretic 
monarch,  and  the  hopes  of  the  Guises  began  to  revive. 
Henry  was  in  a  dilemma.  On  the  one  side  was 
recantation  of  his  faith,  which  would  bring  peace  to  the 
Huguenots  and  prosperity  to  France  ;  and  on  the  other 
side  was  steadfastness  to  the  Huguenot  cause,  which 
would  entail  a  renewal  of  war  and  desolation.  The 
consequences  to  his  country  and  co-religionists  decided 
him,  and  on  20th  July  1593,  King  Henry  IV.  was 
admitted  into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

9.  The  Reformed  Church  during  the  Wars.— 

It  was  high  time  that  peace  should  come,  for  the 
thirty  years  of  war  had  sadly  interfered  with  the  growth 
of  the  Church.  Her  congregations  had  been  reduced 
from  2150  to  763,  and  in  spiritual  life  there  had  been 
almost  equally  great  declension.  The  absence  of  many 
members  in  the  field  had  told  heavily  on  the  finances 


26  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

of  local  congregations,  and  as  a  consequence  poverty 
pressed  heavily  on  the  pastors.  The  change  of  leaders, 
too,  from  Coligny  with  his  deep  earnest  faith  to  Henry 
with  his  laxness  in  life  and  indifference  in  religion,  was 
not  without  its  effect  upon  their  followers.  Fortunately 
the  framework  of  the  Church,  which  had  been  con- 
structed at  the  Secret  Synod  of  Paris  in  1559,  had 
been  in  the  interval  sedulously  attended  to.  Fifteen 
National  Synods  had  met  during  the  course  of  the  wars, 
receiving  reports  from  the  various  districts  and  learning 
by  experience  the  needs  of  the  Church.  Of  these 
Synods  the  most  important  was  that  which  met  at 
La  Rochelle  (1571),  when  for  a  brief  space  the  royal 
favour  was  extended.  Summoned  by  letters  patent 
from  the  King,  the  Synod  had  as  its  moderator  the 
accomplished  Beza,  and  was  graced  with  the  presence  of 
the  Queen  of  Navarre,  Jeanne  d'Albret  and  her  son, 
the  future  Henry  IV.  The  original  constitution  and 
creed,  agreed  to  at  the  first  Synod  in  Paris,  were  now 
revised  and  confirmed,  and  Presbyterianism  again 
formally  adopted  as  the  polity  of  the  Church. 

10.  The  Edict  of  Nantes. — "  I  can  never  use  them 
ill,  I  must  always  love  them,"  Henry  had  said  of  the 
Huguenots  at  the  time  of  his  "  conversion  "  to  Romanism, 
and  in  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1598)  he  gave  proof  of  his 
sincerity.  By  this  magna  charta  of  French  Protestant- 
ism religious  liberty  was  secured  to  all.  Public  worship 
after  the  Reformed  manner  was  granted,  with  more  or 
less  restrictions,  in  all  places  save  Paris  and  a  few  other 
strongly  Romanist  towns.  No  longer  was  the  Reformed 
religion  to  be  a  bar  to  civil  privileges.  And  as  securities 
to  the  Huguenots  they  were  left  in  possession  of  the 
towns  and  fortresses  which  they  possessed  the  year 
before  the  promulgation  of  the  Edict.  With  a  free 
course  thus  guaranteed,  the  Reformed  Church  settled 
down  to  a  period  of  quiet  and  steady  work.  At  the 
beginning  she  was  greatly  helped  by  an  annual  grant  of 
43,000  crowns  from  the  State,  with  part  of  which  she 
established  two   Theological  Colleges  at  Montauban  and 


I 


THE   CHURCH  IN  FRANCE  27 


Saumur,  devoting  the  remainder  to  a  much  needed 
augmentation  of  the  salaries  of  her  poorer  clergy.  Yet  as 
years  passed,  through  the  growing  wealth  of  the  members 
of  the  Church  this  need  grew  less.  By  the  enlightened 
policy  of  the  King  arts  and  manufactures  were  greatly 
fostered,  and  to  his  endeavours  no  section  of  the  com- 
munity responded  so  heartily  as  did  the  Huguenots. 

II.  Gathering  Clouds.— A  rude  shock  was  given 
to  all  hopes  of  continued  prosperity  by  the  assassination 
of  Henry    IV,    in    the    seventeenth    year    of  his    reign 
(16 10),  at  the  hands  of  a  Roman  Catholic.      At  once  the 
Huguenots    scented    danger.      "We    are    going   to  fall 
under  the  yoke  of  Spain  and   the  Jesuits,"    remarked 
Sully,      Henry's     Protestant     Prime     Minister,     "the 
Protestants  will  not  enjoy  tranquillity  long."     Nor  did 
they.     To  Henry  IV.  succeeded  Louis  XIII.  with,  as  his 
chief    minister,    the    great    statesman    priest    Cardinal 
Richelieu.     Richelieu's  policy  was  one  of  concentration  of 
all  authority  in  the  crown.      Any' power  or  semblance  of 
power  existing  apart  from   the   crown  was  noted  with 
jealous  eyes,  and  accordingly  the  Protestant  community, 
with  its  fortresses  and  regular  assemblies,  became  very 
early  an  object  of  aversion.      On  the  pretext  of  guarding 
against  conspiracy,  the  Synods  of  the  Church  were  first 
compelled  to  receive  a  Royal  Commissioner  (1623)  and 
then  altogether  suppressed.     The  Protestant  province  of 
Beam,  where  the   Protestant   Church   had   been  domi- 
nant  for  sixty    years,    was   invaded,    many    of  the    in- 
habitants  slain,    and   the  Roman  Catholic  Church  re- 
established.     And  when  (1628)  after  a  year's  siege  the 
free    city  of  La   Rochelle,   the  citadel  of  French  Pro- 
testantism, fell  before  the  royal  troops,  the  Church  was 
overawed  and  her  political  power  was  dead.     Thereupon 
Richelieu's  plans  for  the  uprooting  of  heresy  underwent 
a  change,  and,  laying  aside  the  sword,  he  adopted — and 
with  success — the  more  subtle  weapons  of  bribery  and 
worldly   advancement.       "Do  you   believe   in   transub- 
stantiation  ?  "  said  the  King  to  the  Duke  de  Lesdigui^res. 
"Yes,"  replied  the  Duke.      "Then,"  said  the  King, 


28  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

"you  are  to  be  Constable  of  France — come,  let  us  go  to 
mass." 

12.  The    Bursting   of   the    Cloud.— In    1643 

Louis  XIV.  succeeded  to  the  throne,  when  again  a 
statesman  priest  was  the  royal  adviser,  in  the  person  of 
Cardinal  Mazarin.  On  the  Huguenots  Mazarin  looked 
with  a  not  unkindly  eye — a  consequence  of  their  wise 
neutrality  in  the  civil  wars  which  troubled  the  early  part 
of  the  reign.  **  I  have  no  complaint  to  make  against 
the  little  flocks,"  said  the  Cardinal — "  if  they  browse  on 
bad  herbage,  they  do  not  wander  into  bad  paths." 
Tolerance  accordingly  was  shown  towards  them,  and 
under  the  mild  rule  the  community  gained  rapidly  in 
wealth,  their  honesty  and  industry  drawing  to  them  the 
greater  part  of  France's  foreign  trade.  Nor  were  their 
ecclesiastical  affairs  less  prosperous.  By  the  permission 
of  Mazarin  a  Synod  of  the  Church  was  held  at  Lmidun 
(1659),  and  the  outlook  was  bright,  when  their  indulgent 
patron  died  (1661),  and  at  once  a  change  set  in.  The 
King  fell  under  the  influence  of  advisers  of  a  narrower 
policy  and  more  bigoted  mind,  by  whom  he  was  en- 
couraged in  those  repressive  measures  against  the 
Huguenots,  which  only  the  counsel  of  Mazarin  had 
previously  prevented.  Unworthy  passion  too  played  its 
part.  An  infatuation  for  Madame  de  Maintenon,  the 
governess  of  his  children,  made  the  King  her  docile 
slave,  while  she  in  turn  was  completely  under  the  control 
of  a  bitter  enemy  of  Protestantism,  Pire  la  Chaise. 
Between  them  they  incessantly  fanned  the  King's  hatred 
of  the  Huguenots  into  flame,  which  burst  out 
periodically  in  the  form  of  an  obnoxious  order.  The 
Courts  of  the  Church  were  again  and  finally  closed. 
Protestants  were  declared  ineligible  for  all  higher  call- 
ings and  all  offices  of  State.  Conversion  to  Protestantism 
was  made  a  crime  punishable  with  perpetual  banishment, 
while  conversion  to  Romanism  was  a  virtue  to  be  re- 
warded. For  a  Protestant  pastor  to  speak  to  one  of  his 
flock  who  had  lapsed  meant  death.  Protestant  children 
were  freely  kidnapped  by  Roman  Catholic  priests,  and 


I 


THE  CnrjRCH  IN  FRANCE  29 

the  parents  had  no  redress.  In  1681  still  harsher 
measures  were  adopted.  Squadrons  of  dragoons  were 
sent  into  the  Protestant  districts,  and  there  quartered  on 
Protestant  families.  Brutal  and  immoral  as  many  of  them 
were,  the  suffering  caused  to  the  hapless  families  by  their 
presence  may  be  imagined.  Pillage,  outrage,  and  murder 
were  of  daily  occurrence,  the  King's  "booted  missionaries," 
as  he  termed  them,  proving  very  apt  in  the  art  of  forcible 
conversion.  So  excessive  was  the  persecution  and  so 
hopeless  the  outlook,  that  a  steady  stream  of  emigration 
set  in.  Thousands  of  Protestants,  gathering  together  all 
their  property  that  they  could  lay  hands  on,  hastened  to 
leave  the  country.  To  stop  the  stream,  emigration 
without  the  King's  permission  was  made  a  penal  offence, 
but  not  before  50,000  Protestants  had  escaped.  Finally, 
on  22nd  October  1685,  the  blow  fell.  The  Edict  of 
N'antes^  long  broken  in  a  hundred  ways,  was  formally 
revoked,  and  Protestantism  again  declared  a  proscribed 
religion  in  France.  By  this  enactment  all  Protestant 
pastors  were  ordered  to  leave  France  within  fifteen  days  ; 
all  Protestant  temples  (as  the  churches  were  termed) 
were  to  be  destroyed ;  Protestant  schools  were  to  be 
closed,  and  the  children  of  Protestants,  after  being  bap- 
tized by  the  Roman  Catholic  priests,  were  to  be  trained 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  ;  and  should  any  Protestants 
be  caught  trying  to  escape  from  France,  they  were  to  be 
condemned,  the  men  to  the  galleys,  the  women  to  prison 
for  the  rest  of  their  life.  Seven  months  later  the  penalty 
was  altered  to  death.  Truly  at  a  terrible  cost  has  the 
Reformed  Church  of  France  earned  the  title  "  Church  of 
the  Cross  "  !  Death  or  exile  were  the  alternatives  now 
facing  the  faithful.  Whoever  could  choose  exile  did  so, 
but  many  to  whom  flight  was  impossible  and  *'  con- 
version "  abhorrent  died  a  martyr's  death  ;  and  many 
more,  in  the  endeavour  to  escape,  were  arrested  and  put 
to  death.  But  the  frontier  of  France  was  too  extensive 
for  efficient  guarding,  and  by  every  possible  route,  in 
every  conceivable  disguise,  the  Huguenots  streamed  out 
of  the  country.     Heartrending  are  the  tales  of  the  suffer- 


30  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

ings  endured  by  the  women  and  children  in  their  efforts 
to  escape,  but  all  suffering  was  counted  cheap  if  only  the 
frontier  could  be  passed.  Over  a  quarter  of  a  million 
Protestants  escaped  and  found  a  refuge  in  England, 
Holland,  Germany,  Ireland,  and  America.  It  was  a 
deathblow  to  Protestantism  in  France,  from  which  the 
Protestant  Church  has  never  recovered  ;  but  France  did 
not  go  unpunished  for  her  cruelty,  for  the  same  blow 
shattered  her  commercial  greatness.  The  Huguenots 
who  fled  were  the  most  skilled  artisans  of  the  country, 
and  they  took  their  art  with  them  to  bless  the  countries 
which  received  them.  Of  the  40,000  silk- workers  in 
Tours  only  4000  were  left;  of  the  12,000  in  Lyons 
there  remained  but  3000.  The  rest  had  fled,  mostly  to 
England ;  and  in  other  manufacturing  centres  a  like 
tale  was  told.  It  was  indeed  a  double-edged  weapon 
which  Louis  wielded  when  he  drove  the  Protestants  into 
exile  ;  and  to  the  present  hour  his  country  feels  the  evil 
consequences  of  his  action. 

Second  Period— The  Church  in  the  Desert 

13.  After  the  Storm. —  With  the  Revocation  of 
the  Edict  of  Nantes  the  Reformed  Church  of  France 
entered  on  the  saddest  century  of  her  existence.  Exile 
and  death  had  reduced  the  once  flourishing  community 
to  a  mere  shadow — from  four  to  five  millions  being  a 
moderate  estimate  of  those  who  had  from  first  to  last  been 
driven  from  the  country — but  a  remnant  still  existed.  In 
the  mountain  recesses  of  the  Cevennes  in  Languedoc  they 
found  a  retreat,  of  comparative  safety,  from  their  foes,  and 
there  the  lamp  of  Protestantism  was  kept  burning,  when  in 
every  other  part  of  France  it  had  been  extinguished.  In 
caves  and  hollows  of  the  mountains  the  fugitives  met  to 
worship  God,  and  under  the  open  heavens  by  faithful 
pastors  the  Lord's  Supper  was  administered,  though  the 
galleys  or  death  was  the  penalty  to  all  if  surprised.  So 
the  Church  in  the  Desert  was  sustained  and  religious 
life  fostered.     But  ere  long  elements  dangerous  to  spiritual 


THE  CHURCH  IN  FRANCE  31 

health  made  their  appearance.  The  constant  risk  of 
death  under  which  the  refugees  lived  bred  a  fanaticism 
and  wild  enthusiasm  in  their  religious  life — a  course 
which  was  all  the  easier  because  of  the  great  want  of 
regular  pastors.  In  their  absence  their  place  was  taken 
by  uneducated  men  and  women,  and  even  children,  claim- 
ing to  be  directly  inspired  by  God  and  called  by  Him 
to  minister  to  His  people.  Strange  ecstatic  '*  prophesy- 
ings"  supported  their  claims,  and,  as  the  contagion  spread, 
disorderly  extravagances  became  the  chief  note  of  the 
community. 

14-  The  Wars  of  the  Camisards. — To  add  to 

the  disorder  came  the  armies  of  the  persecutor.  The 
Abbe  du  Chaylu,  a  retired  missionary  from  Siam,  who 
had  been  appointed  arch-suppressor  of  heresy  in  the 
district,  had  so  goaded  the  Protestants  by  his  cruelties 
that  in  revenge  a  band  of  peasants  had  attacked  and 
burned  his  house  and  slain  their  tormentor.  The  result 
of  the  outbreak  was  the  despatch  of  royal  troops  to  the 
district,  and  the  commencement  of  the  Wars  of  the 
Camisards.  It  was  a  marvellous  struggle.  The  Camis- 
ards— so  called  from  the  camise  or  blouse  which  they 
wore — were  rude  and  ignorant  peasants,  with  no  military 
training,  and  numbered  only  10,000  men.  Yet  for 
more  than  three  years,  partly  by  their  desperate  bravery 
and  partly  through  their  acquaintance  with  the  mountain 
districts,  they  were  able  to  keep  at  bay  the  best  troops  of 
France.  By  their  boy  general  Cavalier  the  Marechals  of 
France  had  to  acknowledge  themselves  baffled.  But 
bravery  and  skill  were  helpless  in  the  long  run  against 
numbers,  and  when  Villars,  the  commander  of  the  royal 
troops,  offered  honourable  terms  of  peace,  Cavalier  accepted 
them.  Freedom  of  conscience  and  liberty  of  worship 
were  guaranteed.  Unwillingness,  however,  on  the  part 
of  the  King  to  ratify  the  terms,  coupled  with  the  reckless 
enthusiasm  of  the  Camisard  **  prophets,"  caused  a  re- 
newal of  the  war,  which  thus  went  on  to  the  bitter  end, 
when  in  17 15  the  King  issued  a  proclamation  that  heresy 
had  at  last  been  completely  extirpated. 


32  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

15.  Antoine  Court. — Protestant  "heresy"  is  hard 
to  kill,  and  within  six  months  after  Louis'  proclamation 
proof  was  given  that  the  "heresy"  still  lived.  There 
then  came  to  the  front  one  of  the  greatest  men  the 
Protestant  Church  of  France  has  produced,  Antoine 
Court,  the  restorer  of  French  Presbyteriafiism.  Sprung 
from  a  godly  peasant  race  and  mostly  self-taught,  he  found 
himself  at  eighteen  years  of  age  the  pastor  of  the  Hugue- 
nots who  lurked  in  the  town  and  neighbourhood  of 
Nimes.  There  the  shattered  condition  of  the  Church 
and  the  evils  caused  by  the  enthusiasts  pressed  so  heavily 
upon  him,  that  he  formed  the  definite  resolution,  with 
God's  help,  to  end  the  disorder  and  rebuild  the  Church 
which  had  been  overthrown.  At  his  invitation,  on 
2 1st  August  171 5,  there  met,  in  an  old  Roman  quarry 
near  Nimes,  the  few  pastors  who  remained  in  the 
Cevennes  and  several  representative  laymen,  when  Court 
placed  before  them  the  state  of  the  Church  and  explained 
his  remedy.  Lack  of  discipline  and  order  in  the  com- 
munity was  the  most  pressing  evil,  and  this  could  best 
be  combated  by  restoring  in  its  fulness  the  Presbyterian 
system  of  elders  and  pastors  governing  the  Church  in 
council.  As  he  advised,  so  the  "  Synod  "  resolved,  and 
the  work  began.  At  Nimes,  as  the  centre,  a  regular 
Consistory  was  formed,  and  throughout  the  district  of 
the  Cevennes,  wherever  Protestants  were  to  be  found, 
elders  were  appointed,  and  entrusted  with  the  duty  of 
watching  over  the  flock,  repressing  disorder,  and  arranging 
safe  places  for  meetings  when  the  pastor  of  the  division 
should  visit  the  neighbourhood.  For  pastors  were  few, 
and  had  to  wander  over  wide  stretches  of  country  to 
minister  to  their  many  flocks.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  the  work.  When  it  was  found  that  Protestantism  still 
lived,  persecution  revived  but  failed  to  arrest  the  growth. 
Yearly  Synods  were  held  in  secret,  and  the  hand  of  the 
Church  was  placed  ever  more  firmly  on  the  religious  life 
of  the  people.  Extravagances  were  sternly  repressed. 
Districts  where  the  influence  of  the  "  prophets  "  had  pre- 
vented the  nomination  of  elders  were  warned  that,  should 


THE  CHURCH  IN  FRANCE  33 

they  fail  to  carry  out  the  instructions  of  the  Church,  no 
notice  would  be  given  them  of  visits  of  pastors  to  their 
neighbourhood.  It  was  a  virtual  threat  of  excommuni- 
cation by  a  proscribed  Church!  "What  a  punishment 
for  a  breach  of  Church  order,"  exclaims  Coquerel,  the 
historian  of  the  Church  of  the  Desert,  "not  to  be  in- 
formed of  meetings  which,  if  surprised,  entailed  on  those 
present  a  lifelong  experience  of  the  galleys  !  " 

The  grim  determination  thus  shown  by  the  Church 
was  rewarded  by  steady  progress.  In  1728  night  assem- 
blies of  3000  people  in  different  districts  were  common, 
and  the  Secret  Synod  had  grown  to  60  members,  mostly 
elders.  Two  years  later  Court  had  to  flee,  with  a  price 
on  his  head  ;  but  from  across  the  border  at  Lausanne  he 
continued  to  help  the  cause  he  loved.  Pastors  were  the 
great  want ;  and  in  Lausanne,  through  Court's  instru- 
mentality, there  was  now  established  a  training  institution 
to  take  the  place  of  the  seminaries  at  Montauban  and 
Saumur  which  had  been  closed.  In  the  meantime, 
under  Michael  Viala  and  Paul  Rabaut,  pastor  at  Nimes, 
the  work  in  France  went  on  with  such  success  that  it 
was  possible  to  hold,  in  1744,  a  Synod  in  the  Desert, 
with  some  claim  to  the  title  "National."  Not  merely 
the  south-eastern  comer  of  France  was  represented,  as 
had  hitherto  been  the  case,  but  from  the  whole  of  the 
southern  provinces,  and  a  few  of  the  western  also,  there 
came  deputies. 

16.   Growth  of  Tolerance.— The  progress  thus 

shown  brought  a  sharp  renewal  of  persecution,  but  it 
did  not  last  long,  for  which  the  Church  was  mainly 
indebted  to  the  rise  in  France  of  the  sceptical  spirit. 
Under  the  teaching  of  Voltaire  religious  indifference 
had  become  fashionable,  and  in  many  cases  absolute 
unbelief  prevailed.  The  Jesuits,  who  a  little  later  were 
expelled  from  the  country,  were  fast  losing  their  influ- 
ence, and  with  its  wane  religious  intolerance  gradually 
disappeared.  To  the  Protestant  Church  came  at  last 
the  much-needed  rest,  and  in  1787,  after  nearly  a  century 
of  proscription,  civil  rights  were  restored  to  his  Protestant 


34  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

subjects  by  the  edict  of  Louis  XVI.  Their  religious 
rights  were  still  withheld,  but  the  hour  was  fast  approach- 
ing when  they  too  were  to  be  secured. 

17-  The  Eevolution.  —  The  year  1789  was  an 
eventful  year  for  France.  Then  it  was  that  the  political 
storm,  which  had  been  so  long  brewing,  came  to  a  head, 
and  before  the  mob  of  Paris,  rising  in  their  might,  the 
Bastille  went  down.  Said  Louis  XVL  when  the  news 
reached  him,  "This  is  a  revolt."  "Sire,"  was  the 
reply,  "it  is  a  Revolution."  It  was  the  opening  act  in 
the  revolutionary  outburst  which  then  passed  over  France, 
and,  from  France,  affected  the  whole  of  Europe.  Every 
civilised  nation  felt  its  influence,  but  in  no  country  were 
the  excesses  which  accompanied  the  movement  so  great 
as  in  the  country  of  its  birth.  In  1685  France  had 
sown  the  wind,  and  now  she  reaped  the  whirlwind.  The 
expulsion  of  her  Protestant  children  from  her  shores,  a 
century  before,  had  not  only  deprived  her  of  a  strong 
bulwark  against  superstition  and  infidelity,  but  had  also 
in  a  great  measure  left  her  destitute  of  the  industrious 
and  independent  middle  class,  on  whose  existence  ex- 
perience has  shown  a  nation's  welfare  so  much  depends. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church,  which,  so  long  as  Protest- 
antism was  a  tolerated  religion,  had  purged  herself  of  many 
evils  and  produced  many  great  and  good  men,  sank  back 
into  her  former  corruption  when  her  rival  was  over 
thrown.  Superstition  spread,  and  in  its  train  came 
its  Nemesis,  Infidelity.  In  the  first  flush  of  triumph 
the  Revolutionary  party  contented  itself  with  confiscating 
all  the  property  of  the  P.oman  Catholic  Church,  re- 
arranging the  dioceses,  and  generally  bringing  the 
Church  under  the  management  of  the  State.  At  this 
period  the  Protestant  Church  profited  so  far  as  to 
have  all  laws  against  Protestantism  repealed.  But  the 
moderation  thus  manifested  by  the  National  Assembly 
changed  rapidly  into  intemperance.  The  anti-religious 
spirit  increased,  and  in  1793  the  Reign  of  Terror  began. 
Christian  worship  was  forbidden  throughout  France, 
and  for  sixteen  months  every  church,  Roman  Catholic 


THE  CHURCH  IN  FRANCE  35 

and  Protestant  alike,  was  closed.  In  the  Cathedral  of 
Notre  Dame  worship  was  paid  to  a  profligate  woman,  clad 
in  classical  costume,  representing  the  Goddess  of  Reason. 
France  gloried  in  infidelity  and  revelled  in  blood.  With 
the  fall  of  Robespierre  the  awful  epoch  ended,  and  re- 
ligion regained  its  rightful  place.  In  1795  the  churches 
were  reopened,  and  to  the  Protestant  Church  at  last  was 
granted  freedom  of  worship,  never,  it  may  well  be  hoped, 
to  be  again  withdrawn. 

Third  Period — The  Church  of  the  Present 
18.  The  Cliurch  under  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

— In  the  closing  year  of  the  eighteenth  century  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  was  made  First  Consul  of  France,  when  his 
advent  to  power  was  the  occasion  of  the  Protestant 
Church  being  placed  on  a  firm,  though  not  entirely 
satisfactory,  basis.  Napoleon  was  professedly  a  Repub- 
lican, but  in  his  tendencies  he  was  as  much  of  an 
absolutist  as  had  been  any  of  the  Kings  of  France,  and 
in  settUng  the  Constitution  of  the  Reformed  Church  this 
was  abundantly  shown.  Information  regarding  the 
doctrine  and  constitution  of  the  Church  was  procured 
by  his  Government,  with  a  view  to  framing  a  suitable 
enactment,  but  when  the  enactment  was  issued,  on  8th 
April  1802,  it  proved  to  differ  considerably  from  the  old 
Presbyterian  system.  The  Congregational  Consistories 
were  abolished,  as  also  the  National  Synods.  The 
congregations  of  the  Church  were  then  grouped  anew 
into  what  were  termed  Consistorial  Chtirches,  each  group 
comprising  6000  souls,  while  the  council  controlling 
the  group  was  known  as  the  Consistory.  It  was  the 
old  name,  but  it  carried  new  duties,  which  approxi- 
mated the  duties  of  the  old  CoUoque.  In  the  mode  of 
electing  the  members  of  the  Consistory,  however,  the 
greatest  departure  from  the  old  ways  was  seen.  In 
addition  to  the  ministers  of  those  churches  which  went 
to  form  the  Consistorial  Church,  the  Consistory  included 
from  six  to  twelve  elders  who  were  to  be  chosen  from 


36  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

those  citizens  (members)  who  paid  the  highest  taxes  to 
the  State.  Wealth  in  place  of  piety  had  become  the 
qualification  for  office  !  Five  of  these  Consistorial 
Churches  formed  a  Synod  Circle,  which  was  governed  by 
a  Synod,  composed  of  one  minister  and  one  elder  from  each 
congregation,  but  which  could  meet  only  by  permission 
of  the  State  and  in  the  presence  of  a  State  functionary. 
So  many  were  the  restrictions  placed  on  this  higher 
council  that,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  no  Synod  met  during 
the  Napoleonic  rule.  The  Consistories  were  the  only 
councils  held,  and  over  them  was  placed  the  State 
Minister  of  Culture.  Thus  separated  from  each  other, 
with  no  legal  means  of  inter -communication  except 
through  the  State  ministry,  the  Consistorial  Churches 
were  debarred  from  taking  mutual  counsel  and  prevented 
from  entering  on  any  common  work.  It  was  a  repetition 
of  the  old  policy,  divide  et  impera,  and  it  worked  :  the 
Reformed  Church  gave  no  trouble  to  the  State.  There 
can  be  no  doubt,  however,  as  to  the  retarding  effect  the 
policy  had  on  the  Church's  own  life.  She  accepted  indeed 
with  gratitude  the  imperfect  constitution  offered  her,  and 
settled  down  uncomplainingly  to  work.'  Half  a  loaf  was 
better  than  no  bread.  After  a  hundred  years  of  wor- 
shipping in  the  desert  under  penalty  of  death,  it  was  a 
great  thing  to  have  freedom  to  worship  God  after  her 
own  manner,  and  to  receive  a  recognised  place  among 
the  institutions  of  the  nation.  But  as  time  went  on  the 
evil  effects  of  the  isolation  of  the  Consistories  began  to 
appear.  The  unity  of  belief  and  purpose  which  had 
marked  the  Church  in  the  Desert  was  gradually  lost 
through  lack  of  intercourse,  and  divergences  which  ulti- 
mately led  to  division  unconsciously  gained  in  strength. 

19.  The  Churcli's  Growth. — Yet,  though  the  seed 
of  future  evil  had  been  sown,  the  Church  as  a  whole 
prospered,  and  within  five  years  from  the  issuing  of  the 
enactment  there  were  in  France  'jS  Consistorial  Churches 
and  222  ministers.  From  time  to  time  proposals  were 
made  to  remedy  the  Constitution,  but  not  till  1848  did 
they  lead  to  action.     Then  the  unrest  and  remodelling 


THE  CHURCH  IN  FRANCE  37 

prevailing  in  State  affairs  made  the  time  seem  propitious 
for  improvements  in  the  Church,  and  an  unofficial  but 
very  representative  Synod  accordingly  met  in  Paris.  Out 
of  92  Consistorial  Churches,  89  had  sent  their  deputies, 
and  by  this  representative  gathering  a  complete  system 
of  Church  Government  on  the  old  Presbyterian  lines 
was  adopted.  The  four  Church  Courts  were  again 
provided,  though  under  slightly  altered  names — Church 
Consistory,  General  Consistory,  Provincial  Synod,  and 
General  Synod.  The  prospect  of  obtaining  State  sanction 
seemed  hopeful,  but  dissensions  among  those  submitting 
the  proposals  caused  them  to  be  set  aside.  It  was  but 
a  postponement,  not  an  abandonment.  Naturally  the 
State  could  not  legislate  for  a  Church  divided  against 
herself.      A  secession  had  first  to  come. 

20.  The  Secession  of  1848— and  after.— On  the 

first  mooting  of  the  proposal  to  hold  a  Synod,  some  of 
the  more  far-seeing  ministers  of  the  Church  had  spoken 
against  it  on  the  ground  of  the  unripeness  of  the  time. 
"The  result  of  the  Assembly,"  said  Mader  of  Strass- 
burg,  *'  will  be  not  the  organisation  but  the  dis- 
organisation of  the  Church."  Pie  spoke  truly,  but 
the  disorganisation  was  a  necessary  step  to  organisation. 
The  Synod,  by  drawing  together  representatives  from 
all  the  districts,  brought  into  prominence  the  great 
divergences  in  doctrine  and  method  which  had  been 
both  fostered  and  concealed  by  the  isolation  of  the 
Consistorial  Churches.  Hitherto  friction  had  been  pre- 
vented by  isolation,  but  the  proposal  for  closer  union 
at  once  gave  importance  to  the  points  on  which  the 
members  differed.  The  main  difierence  was  the  now 
familiar  one  between  the  Old  and  New  Schools  of 
theological  thought.  The  older  theology,  which  had 
its  headquarters  at  the  Faculty  of  Montauljan,  where  the 
able  Adolph  Monod  had  taught,  was  represented  in  the 
Synod  by  the  earnest  and  enthusiastic  Frederic  JMonod ; 
while  the  newer  theology,  whose  chief  seat  was  Paris, 
had  for  its  leader  the  able  and  acute  Coquerel.  The 
Evangelical  party,  under  Y.  Monod,   demanded  that  a 


38  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

definite  creed  be  formulated  for  the  reconstituted  Church, 
but  to  a  large  majority  it  seemed  that  it  would  be 
impossible  in  the  circumstances  to  frame  a  creed 
which  would  be  acceptable  to  all,  and  the  motion  was 
accordingly  rejected.  The  result  justified  Mader's 
prophecy.  Frederic  Monod,  accompanied  by  several 
others,  left  the  Synod,  and  being  joined  by  their  own 
and  other  congregations,  formally  seceded  from  the 
Reformed  Church,  to  constitute  The  Union  of  Evan- 
gelical Churches.  In  separating  from  the  Reformed 
Church  they  also  severed  all  connection  with  the  State, 
surrendered  their  endowments,  and  established  them- 
selves on  a  purely  Voluntary  basis.  Since  its  commence- 
ment the  Union  has  steadily  increased  in  numbers,  and 
has  been  zealous  in  Christian  work,  though  it  has 
remained  a  small  body  as  compared  with  the  parent 
Church.  In  its  Constitution  it  is  a  mixture  of  the 
Presbyterian  and  Congregational  systems,  each  congre- 
gation being  independent  in  its  management  and  work, 
but  responsible  to  the  Union  for  sound  doctrine  and 
wholesome  discipline.  What  the  Reformed  Church  lost 
by  the  secession  she  gained  in  homogeneity,  and,  as  one 
result,  three  years  after  the  abortive  Synod  had  been 
held,  the  reforms  then  proposed  were  finally  sanctioned. 
The  property  qualification  for  the  eldership  was  abolished, 
and  the  old  Church  councils,  with  the  single  exception 
of  the  National  Synod,  were  restored.  In  1872  this 
last  link  in  the  Presbyterian  chain  was  granted  by 
Mons.  Thiers,  and  the  30//^  National  Synod  assembled. 
At  the  instance  of  Mons.  Guizot  a  short  Confession  of 
Faith  was  then  adopted  as  the  Creed  of  the  Church, 
but  not  without  opposition.  One-third  of  the  members 
were  against  the  proposal,  and  so  keen  and  bitter  was 
the  controversy  that  the  permission  to  hold  General 
Synods  with  authority  over  the  Church  was  withdrawn 
by  the  Government.  In  their  place  utiofficial  Synods 
now  meet  every  third  year,  which  possess  no  legislative 
power,  but  are  useful  in  maintaining  the  unity  of  the 
Church. 


THE  CHURCH  IN  FRANCE  39 


21.  Present  Prospects.  —  Speaking  at  the  Pan- 
Presbyterian  Council  of  1888,  Pastor  Bersier,  the 
famous  preacher  of  Paris,  described  his  Church  in 
proud  but  well -merited  words:  "I  represent  a  great 
Presbyterian  Church— I  may  say  the  greatest,  when  I 
think  of  what  she  has  suffered  for  the  cause  of  Christ 
and  human  liberty.  And  though  we  are  small  now, 
we  may  say  that  our  poverty  has  been  the  riches  of 
many  nations."  No  one  will  say  him  nay.  The  un- 
paralleled sufferings  of  this  Church  of  the  Cross,  and  the 
wide  diffusion  of  her  influence  through  her  exiled  sons, 
give  her  a  position  in  the  roll  of  Presbyterian  Churches 
far  higher  than  her  present  membership  would  warrant. 
That  membership  is  small  indeed  when  compared  with 
its  former  greatness,  but  when  we  remember  what  the 
Huguenot  spirit  has  done  in  the  past,  a  Huguenot 
Church  with  400,000  members  and  adherents  is  not  to  be 
despised.  The  rugged  independence,  unswerving  faith, 
and  patient  endurance  which  made  the  Church  the  Martyr 
Church  of  Presbyterianism  still  lives  and  works  for  the 
good  of  France.  So  competent  and  impartial  an  observer 
of  the  France  of  to-day  as  the  late  Miss  Betham-Edwards 
bears  cordial  testimony  in  her  writings  to  the  higher 
type  of  Christian  and  citizen  the  Reformed  Church 
produces,  as  compared  with  the  Roman  Catholic,  and 
augurs  therefrom  a  fair  and  fruitful  future.  "It  is 
my  firm  belief,"  she  writes,  "that  there  is  a  great 
future  for  Protestantism  in  France,  were  only  some 
Wesley  to  arise  capable  of  leading  the  movement.  But 
it  must  be  a  Wesley  largely  imbued  with  nineteenth- 
century  ideas — an  appeal  to  the  taste  as  well  as  to  the 
feelings."     God  speed  the  needed  prophet  1 


40  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 


CHAPTER    III 

THE    PRESBYTERIAN    CHURCH    IN   THE    NETHERLANDS 

/^N  1st  July  1523,  the  martyrdom  at  Brussels  of  two 
^-^  Augustinian  monks,  for  holding  Lutheran  opinions, 
announced  to  the  Christian  world  that  the  Reformation 
had  reached  the  Netherlands.  The  situation  of  the 
country,  bordering  as  it  did  on  Germany  and  France, 
where  Reformed  views  were  current,  favoured  the 
entrance  of  the  new  Faith  ;  and,  once  there,  the  nature 
of  the  people  made  its  rapid  diffusion  a  certainty.  Alike 
in  education,  free  privileges,  and  independence  of  char- 
acter, the  Dutch  were  in  advance  of  most  of  their  con- 
temporaries, and  eagerly  welcomed  the  new  teaching 
which  fitted  so  well  with  their  national  characteristics. 
From  the  Lutheran  side  the  movement  first  came, 
entering  the  country  from  the  north,  but  soon  a  similar 
impulse  from  the  south  was  felt,  Calvinistic  in  its  origin 
^  and  teaching,  which  ultimately  proved  the  stronger  of 
Uhe  two.  Gradually  the  leaven  spread  through  the 
whole  of  the  provinces,  giving  to  the  Reformed  Faith  of 
;the  Netherlands  the  Calvinistic  colour  which  has  ever 
isince  characterised  it.  But  before  the  Church  could  be 
built  the  cross  had  to  be  borne. 

I.  Persecutions. — For  their  head   at  this  critical 

period  the  Netherlands  had  no  less  a  person  than  Charlei, 

v.,  Kin£_of  Spain,  and  Emperor  of  Germany,  who  to 

these    high    dignities    added  the    lesser    title   of  Count 

i  of  Holland   and  the    Netherlands.      In   him    the    Re- 

/   forming  movement  found  a  persistent   enemy.       Foiled 

i    in  his  attempt  to  crush  Lutheranism  in  Germany,  where 

1    his  power  had  many  limitations,   he   resolved   that  no 

such  failure  should  mark  his  operations  in  the  Nether- 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS    41 

lands.  The  burning  at  Brussels  of  Henry  Voes  oxidijohn 
Eschy  the  protomartyrs  of  the  Reformation,  gave  a  proof 
of  his  zeal  and  a  sample  of  his  methods.  To  heresy  the 
death-penalty  was  attached,  and  when  in  1534  there  took 
place  among  the  Anabaptists,  who  were  at  that  period 
numerous  in  the  Netherlands,  an  outbreak,  characterised 
by  gross  excesses,  advantage  was  taken  of  the  opportunity 
to  increase  the  severity  of  the  measures  against  all  Pro- 
testants. The  Inquisition  with  its  barbarous  methods 
was  introduced,  and  in  1550  was  promulgated  one 
of  the  most  infamous  edicts  that  has  ever  stained  the 
statute-book  of  a  Christian  country.  For  a  layman  to 
possess  a  Protestant  book,  to  read  the  Scriptures  in 
private,  to  converse  concerning  the  Scriptures  either 
publicly  or  privately,  to  lodge  or  help  in  any  way  persons 
suspected  of  such  heresy,  meant  death,  and  a  terrible 
death  too — **the  men  with  the  sword  and  the  women 
to  be  buried  alive,  if  they  do  not  persist  in  their  errors  ; 
if  they  do  persist  in  them  they  are  to  be  executed  with 
fire  ;  all  their  property  in  both  cases  being  confiscated 
•  to  the  crown."  These  awful  provisions  were  literally 
carried  out.  Thirty  thousand  nien  and  women  perished, 
meeting  death  with  a  heroism  unsurpassed.  In  1555 
Charles  V.  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son  Philip  II., 
but  the  cliange  of  rulers  brought  no  relief  to  the 
Protestants. 

2.  Presbyterian  Beginnings. — In  the  meantime, 

despite  persecutions,  the  Reformed  views  made  such  head- 
way that  a  definite  creed  and  constitution  for  the  Church 
were  felt  to  be  required.  The  Southern  or  IValloon 
Provinces,  where  the  movement  was  strongest,  were 
markedly  Calvinistic  in  their  sympathies,  and  these  were 
now  reflected  in  the  formal  declaration  of  Creed  and  Con- 
stitution which  they  adopted.  In  1559,  Guido  de  Bres, 
a  Walloon  preacher,  who  had  received  his  training  partly 
m  E n glana  ami  partly  in  Geneva,  drew  up  a  Calvinistic 
Confession  ofJKaiih,  closely  modelled  on  the  French  Con-  V 
fession  of  The  same  year,  wKTcH,'  as  revised  by  Francis 
Junius  under  ';he  title  "  Confessio  Bel^ca"  was  subse- 


42  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

quently  adopted  as  the  Confession  of  the  Dutch  Church. 
Four  years  later  ( 1 56J)  a  thoroughly  Presbyterian  Con- 
stitution for  the  Church  was  adopted  by  a  Synod  held 
in  Antwerp,  at  which  representatives  were  present  from 
I  most  of  the  Protestant  communities  of  the  south.    It  was 
;  a  work  of  faith,  which  bore  fruit  in  after  years,  but  not, 
I  strange    to    say,   in  the   provinces  where    it    originated,    y 
I  Under  the  continued  pressure  of  persecution  these  pro- 
vinces  relapsed   into   Romanism,   while  the   Creed  and 
Constitution  they  had  framed  found  a  permanent  home 
in  the  provinces  of  the  north. 

3.  Protestantism  becomes  the  National  Cause. 

— The  continued  progress  of  Protestantism  led  Philip  to 
try  measures  of  repression,  which  had  a  very  important 
result  on  both  Church  and  State.  In  addition  to  repro- 
claiming  the  Edict  of  1550,  and  mercilessly  enforcing  it 
by  the  aid  of  the  Inquisition,  he  increased  the  Roman 
Catholic  bishoprics  from  four  to  fourteen,  maintained  in 
the  country  a  large  body  of  Spanish  troops,  and  in  many  . 
ways  interfered  with  the  statutory  liberties  of  the  people,  j 
The  Dutch  became  alarmed.  They  saw  their  provinces  I 
the  prey  of  the  foreigner,  and  felt  their  old  freedom  and  i 
hereditary  privileges  fast  slipping  away.  A  national 
impatience  of  the  Spanish  suzerainty  rapidly  developed, 
when  it  was  seen  that  civil  liberties  as  well  as  religious 
were  in  danger.  Protestantism  became  identified  with 
patriotism,  and  the  cause  of  the  Protestant  Church,  from 
being  that  of  a  party,  was  recognised  as  the  interest  of  the 
nation.  vTo  this  fusion  of  the  civil  and  religious  interests 
'  of  the  country  may  be  ascribed  the  ultimate  victory  of 
the  Reformed  Church  in  the  Netherlands.  The  first 
sign  of  resistance  was  the  formation  of  a  league  by  some 
five  hundred  of  the  younger  and  more  reckless  of  the 
nobles  and  burghers.  Binding  themselves  together__bj[_ 
an.  oalh  or  compromise  tp_  resist  Xhe^  Spanish  tyranny, 
they  approached  the  Regent,  the  Duchess  of  Parma,  with 
.  the  request  that  the  Inquisition  should  be  abolished  and 
I  the  Edicts  recalled.  The  Regent  was  alarmed,  and, 
I  promising  that  the  request  would  be  considered,  relaxed 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS    43 

the  harsher  measures  until  instructions  could  be  received 
from  Spain.  Then,  as  if  by  magic,  the  Protestant  feeling 
burst  into  flame.  Crowded  religious  assemblies  were 
held  throughout  the  provinces,  under  the  open  sky,  when 
sometimes  as  many  as  20,000  men,  women^aiidchildreja 
assembled  to  hear  the  Presbyterian  preachers.  At  first  the 
meetings  were  held  with  due  ojrder  and  decorum,  but  soon 
the_enthusLasm_bred  a  fanatical  excitementj\vhich  passed 
beyond  the  control  of  the  ministers.  A  storm  of  icono- 
fAz5-;«  swept  over  the  country,  and  in  the  sacking  of  lour 
hundred  Roman  Catholic  churches,  including  the  grand 
Antwerp  Cathedral,  the  Protestant  mob  gratified  their 
hatred  of  the  system  which  had  worked  such  cruelties  in 
their  land.  Ministers  and  nobles  tried  to  stay  the  fury 
but  in  vain.  The  passion  was  too  deep  ;  and  though 
the  work  of  destruction  is  to  be  sadly  deplored,  it  is 
scarcely  to  be  wondered  at.  What  is  wonderful  is  that, 
in  these  days  of  excitement,  blood  was  not  claimed  in 
return  for  the  blood  of  friends  and  kinsmen  which  had 
been  so  freely  shed. 

4.  War  to  the  Knife. — Tidings  of  the  outbreak 
were  swiftly  carried  to  Philip,  and  in  order  to  crush  the 
revolt  he  despatched  to  the  scene  the  dreaded  Dtike  of 
Alva  with  10,000  troops  (1567).  Alva's  measures  were 
of  the  most  ruthless  and  despotic  nature.  One  merit 
alone  he  had — absolute  fidelity  to  his  master,  but  this 
only  served  to  increase  the  severity  of  his  measures. 
Suspending  the  ordinary  courts  of  justice,  he  formed  a 
Cojiticil  of  Disturbances.^  which,  by  its  gruesome  sell; 
tences,  soon  earned  for  itself  the  name  by  which  it  is 
6est  remembered,  The  Council  of  Blood.  The  most  trivial 
causes  were  enough  to  warrant  a  conviction,  the  mere 
suspicion  of  Protestant  leanings  causing  death.  Within 
three  months  1800  Protestants  were  executed.  The 
Church  organisation  just  forming  was  broken  up,  the 
pastors  slain  or  forced  to  flee,  and  the  whole  country 
thrown  into  a  panic  of  terror. 

5.  William,  Prince  of  Orange. — At  this  juncture 
there  came  to  the  front  the  man  who  was  to  be  the  saviour 


44  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

of  his  country,  William,  Prince  of  Orange.  One  of  the 
leading  nobles  of  the  Netherlands,  he  had  until  now 
been  a  Roman  Catholic  in  religion,  and  in  politics  a 
loyal  supporter  of  the  King,  but  the  continued  deceit  and 
cruelty  shown  by  the  Spanish  power  towards  his  country 
now  led  him  to  alter  both  his  faith  and  his  allegiance 
(1568).  His  espousal  of  the  national  cause  marked  the 
beginning  of  the  real  struggle,  as  it  made  apparent  to 
Philip  that  he  had  now  to  contend  with  the  whole  of  the 
patriotism  of  the  Netherlands.  Freedom  as  well  as  faith 
was  at  stake.  There  is  no  more  deeply  interesting  epoch 
in  secular  history  than  J;he  desperate_and_proLr_acted 
struggle  which_then  ensued.  Against  the  mighty  power 
of  Spain,  then  regarded  as  the  first  nation  in  Europe, 
the  brave  and  sturdy  Dutchmen  contended,  with  a  courage 
and  resolution  which  no  reverses  could  overcome.  Often 
defeated,  they  never  despaired,  and  when,  as  frequently 
happened,  towns  were  captured  and  given  over  to  the 
Spanish  troops  for  sack  and  outrage,  the  survivors  set 
themselves  the  more  determinedly  to  cast  out  the  oppres- 
sors. The  Relief  of  Leyden{yc^  October  1574),  after 
a  five  months'  siege,  during  which  the  citizens  endured 
excessive  privations,  marked  the  turn  of  the  tide.  In 
vain  did  Philip  send  leader  after  leader  to  stem  the  flow. 
Alva's  cruelty,  Requescens's  honourable  warfare,  Don 
John  of  Austria's  able  diplomacy,  and  the  Prince  of 
Parma's  urbanity  and  tact,  alike  failed  to  overcome  the 
stern  patriotism  of  the  Dutch  and  the  watchful  prudence 
of  Orange.  The  southern  provinces  were  indeed  won 
over  to  the  Roman  Church,  and  remain  strongly  Romanist 
to  this  day,  but  the  more  rugged  men  of  the  north  stood 
firm.  In  1579,  by  t\ie.  Trealy  of  Utrechi,  the  seven 
northern  provinces  formed  the  Union  which  was  the 
beginning  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  and  elected  William, 
Prince  of  Orange,  to  be  their  Stadtholder. 

6.  Settlement  of  the  Church.— The  victory  of 

the  State  meant  also  the  triumph  of  the  Protestant 
Church,  but  her  triumph  revealed  the  existence  of  opposing 
interests  and  diverse  views,  which,  during  the  struggle, 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS    45 

had  not  been  visible.  So  long  as  war  was  raging  through 
the  land,  organised  Church  life  had  been  an  impossibility. 
The  Church  organisation,  which  had  begun  so  promisingly 
in  the  south,  had  been  shattered  by  Alva's  iron  strokes. 
Yet  it  was  not  destroyed.  The  pastors  and  many  of  the 
people,  who  sought  safety  in  flight  across  the  eastern 
and  northern  border,  maintained  their  Presbyterianism 
in  exile.  They  lived  in  the  hope  that  better  days  would 
come,  when  they  might  restore  a  Presbyterian  Church  to 
their  afflicted  country  ;  and  with  this  expectation  a  con- 
ference of  refugees,  at  the  transfrontier  town  of  Emden^ 
had  framed  in  157 1  a  series  of  articles  emphasising  afresh 
the  Calvinistic  character  of  the  Church.  Amongst  other 
positions  thus  laid  down  was  the  favourite  Calvinistic 
one  as  to  the  relations  of  Church  and  State  in  a  Protest- 
ant land — honourable  allies,  independent  in  their  own 
spheres,  but  lending  each  other  a  helping  hand  where 
such  help  was  needed.  It  was  an  easy  matter  for  a 
body  of  Calvinistic  divines  in  exile  to  pass  resolutions  of 
so  churchly  a  tone,  but  whether  a  Protestant  State  would 
accept  them  had  yet  to  be  seen.  It  was  soon  tested. 
In  1572  Holland  and  Zealand,  the  two  seaboard 
provinces,  had  virtually  proclaimed  their  independence 
by  declaring  Orange  to  be  their  lawful  Stadtholder,  and 
at  once  the  banished  Protestants  began  to  return,  and 
Protestant  worship  to  be  observed.  Two  years  later 
(1574)  the  first  Provincial  Synod  of  the  Dutch  Church 
met  at  Dortrecht  to  arrange  the  Constitution,  and 
adopted  with  some  modifications  the  Emden  Attides  as 
embodying  the  views  of  the  Church.  But  on  presenting 
the  resolutions  to  the  Stadtholder  and  his  Council,  it 
was  found  that  the  views  of  the  State  were  different. 
The  Church  had  made  her  first  move,  and  had  been 
checked. 

7.  Church  versus  State.— The  check  brought  to 
the  front  the  composite  character  of  the  Protestant 
movement.  Calvinism  had  triumphed  so  far  as  the 
majority  of  ministers  were  concerned,  but  not  from 
Calvinism  alone  had  the  provinces  received  their  Pro- 


46  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

testantism.  Lutheranism  and  Zwinglianism  had  contri- 
buted no  inconsiderable  share,  and  now,  in  the  settlement 
of  the  Church,  Lutheran  and  Zwinglian  views  of  the 
relations  of  Church  and  State  came  into  prominence. 
The  independence  of  the  Church  from  civil  control,  as 
advocated  by  the  Calvinists,  did  not  commend  itself  to 
the  new  Government.  More  consonant  to  its  tastes  was 
the  Zwinglian  view,  which,  holding  that  the  State  was 
itself  a  religious  community,  with  the  Church  as  its 
organ,  gave  the  State  supreme  control  in  Church  affairs. 
Of  this  mind  too  was  Orange.  Though  in  matters  of 
doctrine  he  was  a  thorough  Calvinist,  he  dreaded  the 
effect  of  granting  uncontrolled  freedom  to  the  Church, 
even  if  only  in  things  spiritual.  "  Toleration  "  was  one 
of  the  watchwords  of  his  life,  and  this  he  thought  could 
best  be  secured  by  the  State  retaining  the  supremacy  in 
its  own  hands.  In  a  proposed  constitution  which  he 
submitted  for  consideration  (1576),  in  place  of  the 
discarded  proposals  of  the  Church,  he  showed  how  he 
thought  his  object  might  be  best  attained.  Presbyterian 
offices  and  constitution  were  provided  as  being  admittedly 
most  in  consonance  with  Scriptural  precedent ;  but  in  the 
nominations  to  the  offices  and  in  the  control  of  the 
constitution  the  hand  of  the  State  was  to  be  felt  at 
every  point.  The  project  was  still-bom.  As  the  State 
had  refused  the  Church's  plan,  so  now  the  Church  would 
have  none  of  the  State's.  A  like  fate  awaited  a  scheme 
propounded  by  the  second  Synod  at  Dorty-echt  (1578), 
the  first  National  Synod  of  the  Dutch  Church,  when  the 
churchly  note  was  again  too  pronounced  for  the  State's 
acceptance.  So  also  was  it  with  a  third  proposal,  from 
the  National  Synod  at  Middelburg  (1581).  Neither 
Church  nor  State  would  yield.  Said  the  magistrates  of 
Leyden,  where  the  feeling  against  the  independence  of 
the  Church  was  very  strong,  "If  we  accept  everything 
resolved  on  by  the  Synods,  we  shall  in  the  end  become 
the  Synods'  vassals.  We  will  not  open  to  the  Church- 
men our  gates  and  doors  for  a  new  mastership  over 
magistrates  and  subjects,  wife  and  child."     The  Union 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS    47 

of  the  seven  provinces  had  raised  great  hopes  of  the 
foundation  of  a  really  National  Church,  but  against  their 
realisation  worked  these  opposing  views  of  the  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  authorities.  The  independence  of  each 
province  in  religious  affairs,  which  had  been  fixed  by  the 
Treaty  of  Utrecht,  also  tended  in  the  same  direction — 
the  diversity  of  the  religious  elements  in  the  various 
provinces  making  an  organic  union  impossible.  In  the 
end  the  problem  was  solved  by  the  establishment  of  a 
Provincial  Church  in  each  province,  all  being  Presby- 
terian and  allied  to  each  other  by  a  common  creed  and 
constitution,  but  no  provision  was  made  for  a  supreme 
Church  authority,  or  Assembly  ruling  over  all.  A  Fro- 
vituial  Synod  ioxxi\t.A  the  controlling  court  of  each  Church, 
its  membership  consisting  of  representatives  from  the 
various  Classes  (a  combination  of  the  Scottish  Presbytery 
and  Kirk- Session)  throughout  the  province.  Over  all 
the  civil  power  was  dominant. 

8.  The  Universities.— The  settlement  of  Church 
affairs  was  followed  by  a  marvellous  outburst  of  in- 
tellectual and  theological  activity.  The  war  with  Spain 
still  went  on — nor  did  it  end  till  1609— but  its  lingering 
course  did  not  interfere  with  the  Church's  work.  And 
it  was  a  pressing  work  which  lay  to  its  hand,  none  other 
than  the  further  systematising  and  developing  of  Pro- 
testant theology  on  the  lines  laid  down  by  Calvin.  For 
this  work  the  Dutch  Church  was  better  equipped  than 
any  other  of  the  Presbyterian  Churches  then  existing, 
for  none  were  so  richly  endowed  with  seats  of  learning, 
manned  and  controlled  by  Protestants.  At  Leyden,  in 
gratitude  to  God  for  the  great  deliverance,  a  University  had 
been  established  in  1575.  Franecker  had  followed  suit  in 
1585,  and  before  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century 
had  passed,  three  other  Universities  destined  to  be  famous 
had  sprung  into  existence?^ —  Groningen,  Utrecht,  and 
Hardenvyk.  The  theological  and  intellectual  ardour 
to  which  the  Universities  owed  their  origin  was  greatly 
increased  through  their  influence.  The  Netherlands 
became    the   chief  theological  school  of  the  Reformed 


48  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Churches,  and  formed  the  arena  where  two  of  the 
hottest  controversies  were  waged  which  have  ever 
agitated  Protestantism,  and  which  had  the  effect  of  fixing 
the  creed  of  the  Presbyterian  Churches  for  many 
generations. 

9.  The  Arminiaii  Controversy.— First  in  time 

and  also  in  importance  was  the  great  Arminian  Contro- 
versy, which  in  its  essence  was  a  revolt  of  the  human 
heart  against  the  sterner  aspects  of  the  Calvinistic  Creed. 
Twelve  centuries  before,  a  similar  revolt  had  been 
raised  by  the  Scottish  monk  Pelagius,  when  it  was 
crushed  by  the  great  Augustine ;  and  often  since  then 
have  like  controversies  agitated  the  Church.  They 
come  of  necessity  whenever  the  high  mysteries  of  the 
Divine  nature  and  methods,  as  declared  in  Scripture, 
seem  to  run  counter  to  the  deep  feelings  of  the  human 
heart.  The  theology  of  the  heart  then  rebels  against 
the  declared  theology  of  the  Written  Word.  Such  was 
the  case  in  the  Netherlands  in  the  early  years  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Jarnes  Arminius,  a  professor  in 
the  University  of  Leyden  in  1603,  started  the  con- 
troversy by  denying  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  Un- 
conditio7ial  Election,  and  asserting  that  election  was 
conditional  on  God's  foreknowledge.  Soon  followed 
similar  modifications  on  other  points.  Against  the  high 
Calvinist  position  that  Christ  died  for  the  elect  only, 
Arminius  urged  that  Christ  died  for  all ;  and  inasmuch 
as  the  doctrine  of  the  irresistibleness  of  the  Spirit's  in- 
fluetue  seemed  to  deny  the  freedom  of  the  human  will, 
he  denied  the  doctrine.  Opposing  Arminius  was 
Gotnarus,  a  brother  professor  of  strict  Calvinistic  views. 
The  conflict  rapidly  spread  beyond  the  walls  of  Leyden, 
and  affected  the  whole  Church.  In  the  streets  and 
market-places,  in  the  cottar's  house  and  the  Stadt- 
holder's  palace,  sides  were  taken  and  keen  argument 
held  on  the  deep  theological  points  at  issue. 

But  the  controversy  was  complicated  by  the  existence 
of  other  factors  than  the  theological.  On  the  question 
of  Church  Government  the  Calvinists  declared  strongly 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS    49 

for  spiritual  independence,  while  the  Arminians  ad- 
vocated the  Zwinglian  method  of  subordination  to  the 
State.  Political  differences  also  largely  influenced  the 
course  of  the  controversy.  Maurice  the  Stadtholder 
was  suspected  at  the  lime  of  aiming  at  a  more  complete 
supremacy  over  the  United  Provinces,  and  when  he  found 
the  majority  of  the  states  of  Holland  which  had  republican 
views  joining  the  Arminians,  he  declared  for  the  opposite 
party.  Thus  fanned  from  three  directions,  the  con- 
troversial fire  soon  assumed  proportions  dangerous  to  both 
Church  and  State.  Arminius  died  in  1609,  but  the 
conflict  ceased  not.  In  16 10  his  party  presented  a 
Remonstratice  to  the  Estates  of  Holland  and  East 
Friesland,  when  they  were  supported  in  their  prayer  by 
the  eminent  statesman  Johan  van  Olden  Barneveldt  and 
the  great  theologian  Grotius,  Disruptions  in  the  Church 
at  Rotterdam  and  Amsterdam  were  additional  omens  of 
the  probable  result  of  the  conflict,  unless  steps  were 
immediately  taken  to  end  it.  Accordingly  the  States- 
General  decided  to  call  a  General  Synod  of  the  Church 
to  determine  the  points  at  issue. 

10.  The  Synod  of  Dort. — The  Synod  which  met 
at  Dort  (or  Dortrecht)  in  161 8  was  the  first  and  only 
instance  of  an  CEcumenical  Council  of  the  Reformed 
Churches.  The  Churches  of  the  seven  provinces  were 
of  course  most  largely  represented,  but  in  addition  there 
were  twenty-eight  foreign  deputies,  many  of  whom  were 
from  Germany,  several  from  England  (best  known  being 
Davenant,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Salisbury),  and  one, 
Walter  Balcanquhal,  from  Scotland.  At  an  early  stage 
of  the  proceedings,  the  Arminian  party  were  ruled  out  of 
the  house  in  consequence  of  their  refusing  to  agree  to  the 
rules  of  debate,  and  after  a  session  of  154  meetings,  the 
five  cardinal  points  of  the  Arminian  teaching  were 
condemned  as  heretical,  and  the  Calvinistic  Creed 
adopted  as  the  Creed  of  the  Church.  With  an  un- 
pardonable severity,  which  is  explainable  mainly  on 
political  grounds,  the  Arminian  ministers  were  sent  into 
exile,  and  their  leaders,  Grotius  and  Olden  Barneveldt, 


50  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

seized  and  imprisoned.  Through  his  wife's  devotion 
Grotius  escaped,  but  the  statesman,  less  fortunate,  was 
sent  to  the  block. 

On  the  death  of  Maurice  the  sentence  of  exile  against 
the  Arminians  was  revoked,  and  the  banished  ministers 
returned  to  their  country,  with  liberty  to  preach  and  teach 
as  they  pleased.  From  this  resulted  The  Remonstrattt 
Church,  whose  history  may  perhaps  be  regarded  as 
partially  justifying  the  action  of  the  synod  of  Dort. 
Learned  scholars  and  able  theologians  this  dissenting 
church  has  had,  amongst  them  being  Episcopius,  Lim- 
borch,  and  Wettstein,  and  through  their  influence  the 
theological  views  for  which  the  Church  contended  have 
spread  widely,  and  have  affected  the  teaching  of  churches 
avowedly  Calvinistic.  But  the  Remonstrant  Church  as 
an  organisation  has  not  grown.  To-day  her  members 
number  only  5000. 

II.  The  Oocceian  Controversy. — The  Cocceian 

Controversy  of  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century 
marked  a  step  forward.  Commencing  as  an  endeavour 
on  the  part  of  the  more  cautious  Churchmen  to  prevent 
the  diffusion  of  the  Cartesian  philosophy  in  the  Nether- 
lands, it  proved  in  the  end  to  be  a  formidable  struggle 
between  conservative  and  progressive  theology.  Protest- 
antism was  fast  building  up  a  traditional  theology,  and 
the  Church  was  in  danger  of  falling  into  the  grip  of  a 
new  scholasticism  not  unlike  the  old,  when  against  this 
tendency  there  protested  John  Cocceiiis,  professor  at 
Franecker,  an  able  theologian  and  an  accomplished 
Biblical  critic.  His  contention  was  for  a  Biblical  The- 
ology as  opposed  to  any  traditional  or  scholastic  methods. 
"  Interpret  the  Bible  by  the  Bible,"  was  his  maxim, 
and  in  following  this  method  be  found  lying  at  the  base 
of  God's  dealings  with  men  two  Covena>its  or  agreements 
— one  of  Works,  the  other  of  Gj'cue,  made  with  Adam 
and  Christ  respectively  as  the  representative  heads  of  the 
human  race.  The  Federal  or  Covenant  system  of  the- 
ology thus  formulated  met  with  keen  opposition  irom 
the  older  school  of  the  period,  led  by  Gysbert  Voetius. 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS    51 

But  time  was  on  its  side  ;  already  it  was  the  recognised 
system  of  the  English  Puritans  and  the  Westminster 
confession,  and  before  the  end  of  the  century  it  had 
practically  become  the  recognised  theology  of  all  Presby- 
terian Churches. 

12.  Presb3rterian  Refugees.— While  the  Nether- 

lands  were,  through  much  controversy,  evolving  what  was 
to  be  the  ruling  theology  of  Presbyterianism,  they  also 
by  their  hospitality  did  much  to  preserve  a  Presbyterian 
Church  for  other  lands,  and  notably  for  Scotland.  For 
the  Scottish  Presbyterians  the  seventeenth  century  was 
ojie  of  intermittent  perseoition^ and_of  those  who  were 
.forced  to  flee  for  their  lives  the  majority  sought  and 
found  a  safe  refuge  in  the  Netherlands.  In  the  days  of 
the  Covenant  the  Dutch  Universities  formed  the  training 
school  of  the  young  Scots  ministers,  and  among  those  so 
trained  were  not  a  few  whose  names  were  afterwards 
famous.  In  Middelburg,  Leyden,  Campvere,  and  Rotter- 
dam were  flourishing  Scots  congregations,  which  were 
recognised  and  generously  helped  bylFe"^  States-GeneraL 
The  consequence  of  this  enforced  residence  in  the  - 
Netherlands  of  many  of  the  Scots  ministers  at  a  time  of 
great  theological  activity  have  been  far-reaching.  The  | 
Dutch  theology  then  assimilated,  passing  over  to  Scotland,  I 
has  through  the  Scottish_medium  influenced  the  inany:  ' 
Presbyterian  Churches  which  own  the  Church  of  Scotland 
as  their  mother. 

Nor  was  this  the  only  way  in  which  the  Dutch 
Church  helped  to  extend  Presbyterianism.  It  was  the 
century  of  Dtitch  Colonial  expansion,  and  wherever  the 
Dutch  flag  went,  the  Dutch  Church  was  planted.  Of  v 
this  zeal  Presbyterian  Churches  in  Ceylon,  South  Africa, 
and  America  are  the  present-day  result. 

13.  Modifications  in  the  Constitution.— The 

Constitution  of  the  Church,  which  had  been  the  result  of 
the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  continued  with  little  modification 
until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  What  modifica- 
tions there  were  aimed  at  securing  more  thorough  minis- 
terial supervision.     This  problem,  whiqh  has  frequently 


52     THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

exercised  Presbyterian  Churches,  was  solved  in  the 
Dutch  Church  by  each  Classis  deputing  two  or  three 
ministers  to  visit  annually  every  congregation  within 
its  bounds  and  report  on  the  efficiency  of  the  work. 
Otherwise  the  Presbyterian  system  remained  unchanged. 
But  with  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  began  the 
epoch  of  State  constitution-mongering,  which  tried  the 
Netherlands  more  than  most  European  countries.  From 
I795»  when  the  "  Batavian  Republic"  entered  on  its 
short  life,  to  1813,  when  the  House  of  Orange  was 
restored  to  power,  the  Church  shared  in  the  prevailing 
disorganisation.  Order  then  returned,  and  in  18 16 
the  Church  Constitution,  which  in  its  main  features 
still  continues,  was  adopted.  It  was  Presbyterian  with 
a  completeness  never  before  attained,  inasmuch  as  the 
conciliar  system  was  now  completed  by  a  National 
Synod.  The  State  supremacy,  however,  continued  to 
be  maintained,  by  the  reservation  in  the  King's  hands 
of  large  powers  in  the  nominations  to  the  higher  councils. 
In  1827  the  royal  prerogative  was  again  asserted,  when 
the  system  was  adopted  of  appointing  a  Permanent 
Commission  of  seven  members  of  the  National  Synod. 
The  Synod  named  fourteen,  from  whom  the  King 
chose  the  seven.  Twenty-five  years  later  (1852)  came 
another  change,  and,  up  to  the  present,  the  final  one. 
Influenced  by  the  example  of  the  neighbouring  countries 
of  France,  Belgium,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  Germany, 
the  Government  of  the  Netherlands  then  adopted  the 
principle  of  conctir?-ent  Ejidowment  of  all  denominations, 
and  withdrew  all  claim  to  control  over  the  National 
Church.  From  that  time,  save  for  the  endowments, 
Church  and  State  have  lived  apart. 

1 4.  Rationalism  in  the  Netherlands.  —Through- 
out the  present  century  the  Dutch  Church  has  been 
troubled  more  than  most  Presbyterian  Churches  with 
the  prevalence  of  Rationalism,  a  result  of  the  greater 
freedom  in  doctrinal  matters  which  she  has  possessed 
since  the  century  began.  In  1816  the  first  sign  of 
coming  laxness  was  given   by    the    Synod   sanctioning 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS    53 

a  modified  Creed  subscription.  **  Adherence  to  the 
standards  of  the  Church  was  then  required  no  longer 
quia  (because)  but  quatenus  (as  far  as)  they  conformed 
with  Holy  Writ. "  The  door  being  thus  opened,  advanced 
rationalistic  views  became  common,  until  in  1834  a  re- 
actionary movement  set  in,  headed  by  Henry  de  Cock, 
which  culminated  in  1837  in  the  secession  of  the  more 
orthodox  pastors.  Beginning  with  30  congregations, 
this  Christian  Reformed  Church  has  now  increased  to 
303,  with  70,000  members.  But  the  National  Church 
held  on  its  course,  and  in  1853  the  Synod  declared  that 
from  its  ministers  only  an  agreement  with  "the  spirit  and 
essence  "  of  the  standards  was  required — the  Confessio 
Belgica,  Heidelberg  Catechism,  and  Canons  of  Dort. 
From  this  time  divergences  in  Dutch  theology  have 
been  very  marked,  especially  since  1876,  when,  by  the 
removal  of  the  Theological  Faculties  from  the  Univer- 
sities, the  teaching  of  dogmatic  and  practical  theology 
fell  into  the  Church's  own  hands.  In  consequence 
mainly  of  these  theological  differences  a  second  secession 
of  the  more  orthodox  Calvinists  took  place  in  1S86, 
who,  after  a  few  years,  united  with  the  Christian  Re- 
formed Church.  Upon  the  National  Church  these 
secessions  have  had  a  decidedly  weakening  effect,  the 
number  of  aspirants  to  her  ministry  being  so  much 
reduced  that  in  recent  years  one-third  of  her  charges 
were  reported  vacant.  But  there  are  now  signs  of  a 
change  for  the  better,  and  in  a  large  increase  of 
theological  students  as  well  as  in  the  growth  of  more 
orthodox  views  in  the  ministry,  there  is  the  promise  of 
a  fairer  future. 


54  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 


CHAPTER  rV 

MINOR   PRESBYTERIAN    CHURCHES    (CONTINENTAL) 

OF  the  Continental  Presbyterian  Churches  the  French 
and  Dutch  have  an  acknowledged  historical  pre- 
eminence, derived  not  only  from  the  stirring  incidents 
which  have  attended  their  progress,  but  also  from  the 
important  part  they  have  played  in  the  wider  develop- 
ment of  the  Presbyterian  system.  But  besides  these 
Churches  there  are  others  which  are  also  Presbyterian 
in  their  government  and  Calvinistic  in  their  creed,  and 
whose  past  is  likewise  full  of  heroic  faith  and  protracted 
suffering.  Political  complications,  however,  in  some 
cases,  geographical  position  and  relentless  persecution 
in  others,  have  resulted  in  their  isolation  from  the  full 
stream  of  the  Presbyterian  life  of  Western  Europe,  and 
only  since  the  formation  of  the  General  Presbyterian 
Alliance  have  they  taken  their  place  in  the  Catholic  Pres- 
byterian Church.  A  convenient  classification  of  these 
less-known  Churches  is  a  threefold  one — A.  Approxi- 
mately Presbyterian  Churches^  as  the  National  Evan- 
gelical Church  of  Germany  ;  B.  Presbyterian  Survivalsy 
as  the  Churches  of  Bohemia,  Hungary,  and  French 
Switzerland  ;  C.  Nascent  Presbyterianis?n^  as  represented 
in  Italy,  Spain,  Belgium,  and  elsewhere. 

A.  Churches  approximately  Presbyterian 

The  National  Evangelical  Church  of  Germany 

The  National  Evangelical  Church  of  Germany  cannot 
be  reckoned  as  purely  Presbyterian  any  more  than 
purely  Lutheran,  but  so  strong  are  certain  Presbyterian 


APPRO XI MA  TEL  Y  PRESB  YTERIA N 


55 


elements  in  her  life  and  constitution  that  a  brief  reference 
to  them  is  necessary.  They  are  a  heritage  of  the  decree 
of  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  (1555),  which  gave  to  every 
German  prince  the  liberty  of  introducing  and  enforcing 
throughout  his  territory  whatever  form  of  Church  he 
pleased — "  Ciijiis  regio,  ejus  religio'''' — a  decree  tolerant 
to  the  rulers  but  intolerant  to  the  ruled,  and  the  fruitful 
cause  of  divisions  in  German  Protestantism. 

I.  Introduction  of  Presbyterianism  to   the 

Palatinate. — in  1559  Frederick  III.  succeeded  to  the 
rule  of  the  Palatinate,  and  as  an  enthusiastic  Calvinist  did 
his  utmost  to  induce  his  subjects  to  adopt  his  views.  In 
the  Upper  Palatinate  he  failed,  but  in  the  Lower  or 
Rhitie  Palatinate  better  fortune  attended  him,  although 
his  methods  were  not  such  as  can  be  commended.  In 
the  University  of  Heidelberg  Lutheran  professors  were 
got  rid  of,  and  Calvinistic  theologians  were  brought  from 
Switzerland,  France,  and  the  Netherlands  to  take  their 
place.  Similar  measures  were  adopted  in  many  of  the 
more  important  charges,  with  the  result  that  in  a  few 
years  the  whole  of  the  Palatinate  was  a  Calvinistic  pro- 
vince, and  up  to  a  certain  point  its  Church  was  Presby- 
terian. That  it  was  not  wholly  so  was  due  to  Frederick's 
reluctance  to  allow  the  real  direction  of  Church  affairs 
to  pass  out  of  his  own  hands — a  reluctance  which  was 
universal  among  continental  princes.  But  so  far  as  the 
Church  had  power  to  move,  she  did  so  on  Presbyterian 
lines,  an  enduring  evidence  of  this  being  The  Heidelberg 
Catechism^  which  was  composed  for  local  use  in  1563 
by  two  of  Frederick's  Calvinistic  professors,  Olevianus 
and  Ursinus,  but  was  speedily  recognised  by  all  the 
Presbyterian  Churches  of  Europe  as  a  masterly  com- 
pendium of  their  beliefs.  By  its  softening  of  the  harsher 
Calvinistic  views  on  predestination  and  other  points,  and 
by  the  general  moderation  of  its  tone,  it  won  its  way  to 
the  place  it  still  holds  as  one  of  the  historic  creeds  of 
Presbyterianism. 

2.   Presbyterianism   in  the  Duchies  of  the 

Lower  Rhine. — A  very  different  cause  led  to  the  plant- 


56  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

ing  of  Presbyterianism  in  the  duchies  to  the  immediate 
north  of  the  Palatinate — not  patronage  but  persecution. 
In  1545  the  cruel  measures  of  Charles  V.  drove  numbers 
of  his  Walloon  subjects  to  seek  refuge  in  the  town  of 
Wesel  in  the  duchy  of  Cleves.  Ten  years  later  "  Bloody  " 
Mary's  deeds  in  England  and  the  growing  hostility  to  the 
Huguenots  in  France  forced  many  English  and  French 
Protestants  to  flee  to  the  same  haven  ;  and  when,  in 
1567,  Alva's  reign  of  terror  began  in  the  Netherlands, 
thousands  of  Dutchmen  fled  across  the  Rhine  to  the 
hospitable  duchies.  With  so  many  Presbyterian  refugees 
in  the  country  the  ecclesiastical  aspect  of  affairs  in  Cleves 
underwent  a  change.  The  Lutheran  theology  yielded 
to  the  Calvinistic,  and  a  modified  Presbyterianism  took 
the  place  of  the  Consistorial  Church  government.  Join- 
ing hands  with  the  Presbyterians  of  the  Palatinate,  these 
brethren  of  the  persecuted  churches  now  held  Synods, 
and  sought  to  improve  the  opportunity.  Of  these  the 
most  notable  was  the  Syttod  of  Eniden,  held  in  1571, 
under  the  presidency  of  Caspar  von  der  Heyden.  It 
was  a  representative  gathering  of  exiles  from  churches  of 
many  lands,  and  for  the  guidance  of  these  churches  it 
framed  the  Ef?iden  Articles — a  series  of  articles  closely 
following  the  French  Confession  of  Faith,  and  embodying 
a  complete  scheme  of  Presbyterian  Church  government. 

3.  Later  Course   of  Presbyterianism.  —  The 

Presbyterianism  then  introduced  has  continued  ever  since 
to  be  the  dominant  feature  of  the  ecclesiastical  life  of 
Western  Germany,  though,  owing  to  the  persistence 
with  which  the  civil  authorities  have  maintained  their 
supremacy,  it  has  never  attained  its  full  development. 
A  new  period  was  begun  when,  in  181 5,  those 
"  Presbyterian  "  provinces  where  the  "  Reformed " 
Church  prevailed,  as  contrasted  with  the  ^^  Ltiflieran,''^ 
fell  to  Prussia.  The  Tercentenary  of  the  Reformation 
(18 1 7)  appeared  to  Frederick  William  II.  a  favourable 
opportunity  for  uniting  the  two  great  Protestant  Churches 
in  his  dominions,  and  accordingly  there  arose  The 
National  Evangelical  Church  of  Prussia.      It  was  the 


PRESBYTERIAN  SURVIVALS  57 

outcome  of  a  compromise,  in  which  Prussia's  lead  was 
followed  by  most  of  the  German  States.  Each  Church 
was  suffered  to  retain  her  own  standards  and  walk  after 
her  own  ways.  Elders,  Presbyteries,  and  Synods  con- 
tinued prominent  in  the  Reformed  branch,  while  Con- 
sistories prevailed  in  the  Lutheran.  Many  modifications 
have  had  to  be  made  since  then,  and  the  stricter  ad- 
herents on  each  side  have  found  it  necessary  to  secede. 
In  the  United  Church  herself  Lutheran  theology  and  forms 
of  service  have  affected  the  Reformed  section  to  such 
an  extent  that  a  Reformirte  Bund  has  sprung  into 
existence  to  check  the  tendency,  but  in  the  Constitu- 
tional devel.nments  the  gain  has  been  the  other  way. 
The  Presbyiurian  form  of  government  has  almost 
entirely  ousted  the  Consistorial,  and,  though  still  in  an 
"arrested"  condition, — as  the  secular  power  remains 
the  supreme  authority  in  the  Church, — the  full  develop- 
ment is  not  doubtful,  when  in  the  coming  days  the 
••arrest"  shall  have  been  removed. 

B.  Presbyterian  Survivals 

I.  Bohemia 

I.  Origin.— In  the  land  of  Huss  and  Jerome  Presby- 
terianism  of  a  modified  type  had  found  a  home  half  a 
century  before  Calvin  ruled  in  Geneva.  So  early  as  the 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  jealousies  and  wars 
of  the  two  sections  of  the  Hussites  had  led  to  the  forma- 
tion of  a  third  Reformed  community,  whose  members 
shrank  in  horror  from  the  internecine  strife,  took  the 
Bible  as  their  only  guide,  and  became  noted  for  their 
lives  of  simple  piety.  These  were  the  Unitas  Fratrum, 
or  Brethren  in  Unity,  who  formed  the  seed  of  future 
Bohemian  Protestantism.  As  befitted  a  movement  which 
was  largely  of  the  laity,  the  lay  element,  when  growth 
necessitated  organisation,  maintained  its  position  ;  and  in 
the  constitution  adopted  in  1496  Elders  and  Deacons 
were    prominent.       Practically   it   was   a   Presbyterian 


58     THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Church, — but  with  one  peculiarity.  As  its  highest  office- 
bearer in  each  synodal  district  it  had  a  Bishop,  elected 
by  the  pastors,  to  which  functionary,  in  conjunction  with 
two  or  three  co-Bishops,  was  committed  the  oversight  of 
the  Church.  So  rapidly  did  the  brotherhood  increase 
that  we  read  of  a  Synod  in  1557  being  attended  by  200 
pastors,  besides  many  laity  of  the  nobility  and  other 
classes.  It  had  become  the  true  National  Church  of 
Bohemia.  With  the  uprising  of  the  Reformation  in 
Western  Europe  this  pre-Reformation  Protestant  Church 
came  more  into  prominence,  and,  recognising  its  close 
affinity  with  the  Genevan  Church,  sent  warm  salutations 
to  Calvin,  by  whom  they  were  cordially  reciprocated. 

2.  Persecutions.  —  In  16 19  Bohemia  came  under 
the  sway  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  a  keen 
Romanist,  Knowing  what  fate  lay  before  them,  the 
nobility  attempted  to  evade  it  by  inviting  to  the  throne 
Frederick,  the  Elector-Palatine  and  son-in-law  of  the 
English  Protestant  monarch,  James  I.  Frederick 
accepted  the  invitation  and  took  the  field,  but  the 
cautious  father-in-law  sent  no  help,  and  on  the  White 
Hilh  near  Prague,  the  insurrection  was  completely 
crushed  by  the  imperial  troops.  Opposition  had  sharp- 
ened the  Emperor's  desire  to  root  out  all  heresy,  and 
with  the  Jesuits  at  his  elbow  to  urge  him  on,  he  now 
inaugurated  a  course  of  bitter  and  prolonged  persecution, 
whose  brutalities  were  worthy  of  Alva.  Into  the  silver 
mines  of  Kuttenbe7'g  4000  Protestants  were  thrown 
headlong  in  a  single  year ;  at  Prague  25  of  the 
noblest  in  the  land  were  executed ;  and  throughout 
the  country  Protestant  men,  women,  and  children  were 
the  sport  of  a  lewd  and  brutal  soldiery.  In  his  aim 
the  Emperor  was  completely  successful.  Protestantism 
to  all  outward  appearance  was  extirpated.  In  other 
lands  a  safe  refuge  and  a  ready  welcome  were  accorded 
to  the  refugees  who  were  fortunate  enough  to  escape. 
John  Amos  Covienms,  the  famous  educationist,  who  was 
at  the  time  the  senior  Bishop  of  the  Church,  found  a 
haven  in  the  Netherlands  ;    and  still  better  known  to 


PRESBYTERIAN  SURVIVALS  59 

fame,  though  nameless,  is  the  company  of  fugitives  who 
took  refuge  at  Hennesdorf,  in  Saxony,  and  later  on  at 
Herrnhut^  where  they  laid  the  foundation  of  the  most 
devoted  Missionary  Society  the  world  possesses.  But 
in  Bohemia  the  Church  was  not ;  and  for  nigh  two 
centuries  the  iron  hand  of  persecution  prevented  any 
resurrection. 

3.  Toleration. — In  the  end  of  last  century  came  the 
first  opportunity  of  renewed  life.  Joseph  11.^  a  humane 
and  enlightened  monarch,  became  Emperor  of  Austria, 
and  in  1781  issued  an  Edict  of  Toleration.  For 
political  reasons  the  old  National  Church  of  the  Brethren 
was  not  permitted  to  reappear,  but  to  Protestantism, 
either  of  the  Reformed  or  the  Lutheran  type,  there  was 
granted  toleration.  The  efl'ect  was  a  wonderful  revela- 
tion of  the  extent  to  which  a  hidden  Protestantism  had 
survived.  Over  seventy  congregations  in  Bohemia  and 
Moravia  sprang  into  existence  ;  Hungary  supplied  the 
needed  pastors,  and  the  land  of  Huss  had  again  a 
Reformed  Church.  A  period  of  rapid  development 
seemed  to  be  opening,  when  the  Emperor  died  and  was 
followed  by  a  reactionary  successor.  The  life  which 
had  been  granted  to  the  Protestant  Church  became  a 
bare  existence,  with  every  opportunity  of  expansion 
rigorously  cut  off.  No  intercourse  was  permitted  with 
the  Protestant  Churches  of  the  outside  world  ;  Protestant 
books  and  Bibles  were  stopped  at  the  frontier ;  pro- 
fessedly National  but  really  Romanist  schools  were 
entrusted  with  the  education  of  all  children  ;  and  a 
Romanist  occupied  the  chair  in  the  Ecclesiastical  State 
Council  which  had  the  oversight  of  the  Protestant 
Church.  From  this  cramping  environment  the  Church 
escaped  in  1861,  when  a  more  liberal  constitution  was 
granted,  which  has  resulted  in  greater  prosperity.  To- 
wards the  support  of  the  ministry  the  State  gives  a 
small  yearly  grant  of  ;[^i5oo,  but  refuses  what  would 
be  more  valuable,  a  Presbyterian  Constitution  for  the 
government  of  the  Church.  Over  synods  and  superin- 
tendents  still   rules   the    Ecclesiastical    Council.      The 


6o  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Church  to-day,  together  with  the  sister  Church  of 
Moravia,  numbers  only  66,000  members,  but  her  heroic 
struggles  in  the  past,  and  her  resolute  Educational 
and  Home  Mission  work  in  the  present,  give  good 
grounds  for  hoping  that,  when  the  growing  liberal 
tendencies  of  Austro- Hungary  have  advanced  a  little 
further,  the  Church  too  will  advance,  and  that  most 
rapidly.      She  is  in  touch  with  the  national  spirit. 

II.  Hungary 

I.  Origin.  —  Somewhat  similar  in  its  course,  but 
more  fortunate  in  its  issue,  has  been  the  history  of 
Presbyterianism  in  Hungary.  As  in  Bohemia  so  here 
Lutheranism  was  first  in  the  field,  but  Calvinism  proved 
more  enduring.  At  Erdod  in  1545  a  synod  of  the 
Protestants  adopted  the  Augsburg  Confession^  thereby 
declaring  themselves  Lutherans  ;  but  five  years  later  the 
writings  of  the  Genevan  Reformers  became  known,  and 
so  cordial  was  the  reception  given,  that  in  1567,  at  the 
Synod  of  Debreczen,  the  Second  Helvetic  Confession  and 
the  Heidelberg  Catechism  were  accepted  as  the  standards 
of  the  Church.  To  these  standards,  through  good 
report  and  ill,  the  Reformed  Church  of  Hungary  has 
ever  since  steadfastly  adhered.  Political  changes  which 
so  nullified  the  Reformation  in  Bohemia  had  the  con- 
trary effect  in  Hungary.  The  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century  witnessed  the  partition  of  the  ancient  Hungarian 
kingdom  into  two  parts,  Htingary  proper  and  Transyl- 
vania, when  the  latter  had  the  good  fortune  to  fall 
under  the  rule  of  Reformed,  or  at  least  tolerant,  princes. 
For  the  Protestant  Church  it  was  a  crowning  mercy,  as 
Debreczen  became,  under  the  mild  rule,  a  fruitful  centre 
of  religious  life  affecting  the  whole  kingdom.  A  check 
was  given  to  the  progress  in  1602  by  the  invasion  of 
Rudolf,  the  King  of  Hungary,  who  subdued  Transyl- 
vania and  began  to  prosecute  the  Protestants ;  but  the 
check  was  only  temporary.  His  harsh  measures  pro- 
voked a  revolt  under  the  brave  leader  Stephen  Bocskay^  a 


PRESBYTERIAN  SURVIVALS  6i 

Protestant  noble,  which  was  completely  successful  ;  and 
in  1606,  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  the  independence  of 
Transylvania  was  acknowledged.  The  victory  gave 
seventy  more  years  of  peace  and  prosperity  to  the 
Reformed  Church,  allowing  her  to  fix  her  roots  deep  in 
the  life  of  the  people  before  the  day  of  her  greatest  trial 
should  dawn. 

2.  Persecutions. — That  day  dawned  in  1677,  when 
Leopold  I.  of  Hungary  commenced  a  determined 
persecution  of  his  Protestant  subjects.  The  pastors 
were  commanded  to  embrace  Romanism,  and,  on  their 
refusal,  imprisonment,  exile,  the  galleys,  and  in  some 
instances  death,  were  the  penalties  meted  out.  In  the 
trials  of  the  Hungarian  Church  the  church  of  Transyl- 
vania shared,  the  principality  having  lost  its  independ- 
ence during  Leopold's  reign.  Often  without  pastors, 
deprived  of  many  of  their  churches,  and  refused  tolera- 
tion for  their  creed,  the  Protestants  spent  a  century  of 
bitter  humiliation,  which  was  at  last  ended  with  the 
issue  of  the  Edict  of  Toleration  of  Joseph  H.  (1781). 
From  that  day  of  rejoicing  the  Hungarian  Church  re- 
sumed her  onward  march.  Many  difficulties  and  much 
irritating  opposition  she  has  had  to  contend  against,  but 
the  independent  position  of  Hungary  in  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  Union  has  rendered  her  progress  less  hard 
than  would  otherwise  have  been  the  case.  Nor  will  any 
help  be  undeserved  which  the  Hungarians  may  bestow 
upon  the  Church.  As  a  sagacious  and  not  ultra-Protestant 
writer  has  recently  said,  "  The  Protestant  Church  was  the 
means  of  keeping  alive  their  national  aspirations,  the 
outcome  of  the  traditions  of  the  past,  and  leavening 
these  with  dreams  of  moral  and  material  progress  and 
spiritual  liberty.  The  spirit  of  Protestantism  is  the 
source  of  the  magnetic  power  which  is  enabling  Hungary 
to  realise  her  national  dreams.  For,  at  the  present  time, 
hemmed  in  by  Catholicism  on  all  sides,  the  intellectual 
backbone  of  the  country,  the  small  nobility,  is  Protest- 
ant, and  that  of  a  Calvinistic  type  "  {Realm  of  the  Haps- 
burgs). 


62  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

3.  Present  Condition. — Until  quite  recently  the 
territorial  divisions  of  former  centuries  were  perpetuated 
in  the  Church,  its  2000  congregations  and  200,000 
members  being  divided  amongst  five  provincial  churches  ; 
but  since  1881,  when  a  great  National  .Synod  met  at 
Debreczen,  the  walls  of  separation  have  been  broken 
down,  and  Hungarian  Presbyterianism  provided  with  a 
unity  it  previously  lacked.  Through  its  long  isolation 
from  other  Presbyterian  Churches,  the  Hungarian  Church 
was  free  to  develop  on  lines  of  its  own  choosing,  and  in 
one  respect  the  development  has  been  unique.  Over 
each  Tractus  (Church-county  or  Presbytery)  is  placed  a 
dual  presidency,  a  Senior  elected  from  the  ministers 
and  a  Coadjutor  Curator  chosen  from  the  elders ;  while 
in  like  manner  the  oversight  of  each  of  the  five  provinces 
is  entrusted  to  a  clerical  Superinte^ident,  along  with  a  lay 
Curator  from  the  eldership.  Presbyterian  parity  is  thus 
emphasised,  while  Episcopal  superintendence  is  secured. 
In  its  work  the  Hungarian  Church  has  been  noted  above 
all  for  its  educational  zeal.  By  the  side  of  every  parish 
church  was  planted  from  the  beginning  a  parish  school, 
to  ensure  the  Protestant  training  of  the  children,  an  im- 
portant point  in  Roman  Catholic  lands.  High  schools 
and  colleges  completed  the  system,  and,  save  during  the 
time  of  the  persecutions,  these  have  been  sedulously 
maintained.  Their  support  and  prosperity  continues  to 
be  one  of  the  main  cares  of  the  Church,  more  especially 
since  the  establishment  of  "  confessionless "  but  really 
Romanist  schools  by  the  State  has  thrown  the  burden  of 
supporting  the  Reformed  schools  entirely  on  the  shoulders 
of  the  Church.  A  staff  of  5000  teachers  and  an  attend- 
ance of  300,000  pupils  show  how  well  the  duty  is 
performed.  In  its  care  for  the  young  lies  the  best 
assurance  of  the  future  prosperity  of  Hungarian  Presby- 
terianism. 

III.  Switzerland 

Among  Presbyterian  survivals,  by  a  strange  irony  of 
fate,  have  to  be  classified  the  Presbyterian  Churches  of 


PRESBYTERIAN  SURVIVALS  63 

Switzerland.  The  honour  paid  to  the  great  prophet  of 
Geneva  by  the  country  of  his  adoption  has  been  pitiably 
small,  as  compared  with  that  accorded  him  by  the  great 
world  outside.  For  this  strange  result  the  Cantonal 
system  of  Switzerland  is  mainly  to  blame.  Under  that 
system  each  canton  had  the  choosing  of  its  own  ecclesias- 
tical policy,  and  when  the  choice  was  originally  made 
all  but  three  of  the  Protestant  cantons  gave  their 
voice  for  the  methods  of  Zwingli.  The  three  faithful 
were  those  of  French  Switzerland — Geneva,  Vaiid,  and 
Nenchatel.  For  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  after  the 
first  reforming  outburst  these  three  churches  slumbered 
peacefully,  troubling  not  the  outer  world  and  by  it 
untroubled.  In  communicating  the  impulse  to  the 
Reformed  Churches  of  Europe,  Switzerland  seemed  to 
have  exhausted  her  energies.  But  when,  towards  the 
close  of  last  century,  the  evangelical  revival  took  place  in 
Britain,  the  French  cantons  awoke  from  their  lethargy 
and  the  old  spirit  reappeared  in  the  Churches.  In  all 
three  the  revival  of  life  has  been  attended  with  ecclesias- 
tical divisions. 

I.  The  Genevan  Church.— With  a  peculiar  fitness 

the  new  impulse  came  to  Geneva  from  Scotland — the 
land  which  owed  so  much  to  Calvin.  In  18 17  the 
Scottish  Evangelist,  Robert  Haldane,  visited  the  city, 
and  by  his  apostolic  earnestness  roused  a  band  of  young 
Churchmen  from  their  lethargy.  Cesar  Malan,  Merle 
d'Aubigne,  Gaussen,  and  others,  catching  his  spirit,  made 
Geneva  ring  with  an  evangel  long  unheard.  To  the 
Church  as  a  whole  the  movement  was  unwelcome,  dis- 
turbing as  it  did  the  peaceful  quiet  of  a  century,  and 
with  the  hope  of  arresting  its  progress  she  deposed 
Malan  from  her  ministry.  But  the  result  was  not 
according  to  her  hopes.  Congregations  were  formed 
outside  her  pale,  and  the  contagion  rapidly  spread.  To 
provide  an  Evangelical  training  for  the  young  ministers, 
such  as  could  no  longer  be  assured  at  the  old  Academy, 
d'Aubigne  and  Gaussen  established  an  Evangelical 
School  of  Theology  (1832),   and   when   in  consequence 


64     THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

they  also  were  deposed,  the  cause  of  the  dissidents 
rapidly  advanced.  Still  further  to  help  the  movement, 
it  happened  that  simultaneously  with  these  oppressive 
acts  a  civil  movement  was  in  progress  for  the  purpose  of 
drawing  the  Church  more  completely  under  the  control 
of  the  State  and  approximating  in  other  respects  to 
the  Zwinglian  methods.  Since  the  days  of  Calvin  the 
management  of  the  Church  had  been  vested  in  the 
Venerable  Company  of  pastors  and  in  the  Consistory  ; 
but  now  that  power  was  gradually  being  removed.  In 
1834  the  Venerable  Company  lost  the  management  of 
the  old  Academy  of  Beza  ;  in  1847  it  was  shorn  of  its 
ancient  privilege  of  deciding  on  the  qualifications  of 
aspirants  to  the  ministry,  and  in  the  same  year  the 
Council  of  State  abolished  the  Confession  of  Faith. 
This  assumption  of  vital  spiritual  powers  by  the  State 
caused  many  of  the  Evangelical  party  to  secede,  and  in 
1849  the  Free  Evangelical  Church  of  Geneva  came  into 
existence.  It  is  yet  the  day  of  small  things  with  this 
young  Church,  having  but  3  parishes  and  480  members, 
but  it  seeks  to  walk  steadily  on  the  road  marked 
out  long  ago  by  Calvin.  Relieved  of  many  of  the 
*'  Evangelicals,"  the  National  Church  succumbed  more 
easily  to  the  attacks  of  the  State,  and  since  1874  it  has 
lost  its  title  to  a  place  among  Presbyterian  Churches, 
having  become  essentially  Zwhiglian.  The  last  shred  of 
spiritual  power  has  departed  from  the  Venerable  Cotiipany, 
which  is  stated  by  one  of  its  number,  Professor  Bouvier, 
to  be  "  no  longer  anything  but  a  consulting  body, 
whose  principal  work  seems  now  to  be  to  gather  and  to 
bring  to  light  all  the  metnorabilia  of  her  past. " 

2.  The  Cliurch  in  Vaud. — Somewhat  different  has 
been  the  course  of  affairs  in  the  canton  of  Vaud.  Here 
the  leader  in  the  new  movement  was  the  celebrated 
Alexandre  Vhiet^  ablest  of  modern  Swiss  theologians. 
In  his  later  life  Lausanne  was  the  scene  of  his  activity  ; 
and  there,  in  1845,  ^.s  the  result  of  his  advocacy  of 
separation  of  Church  and  State,  on  the  State  seeking 
to  use  the  Church  as  a  political  agent,  one  hundred 


NASCENT  PRESDYTERIANISM  65 

ministers  seceded  to  form  the  Free  Evangelical  Church 
of  Vatid.  This  Church  now  possesses  4000  communicants, 
and  is  specially  distinguished  by  her  zeal  for  foreign 
missions.  Over  the  National  Chicrch,  whose  communi- 
cants number  15,000,  the  Government  continues  to  assert 
its  supremacy,  but  usually  only  to  the  extent  of  reviewing 
the  Church's  decisions  so  as  to  satisfy  itself  that  no  civil 
right  has  been  interfered  with. 

3.  The  Olmrch  in  Neuchatel. — In  the  National 

Church  at  Neuchatel,  which  honours  Farel  as  its  founder 
and  the  veteran  Godet  as  its  chief  living  teacher,  division 
did  not  occur  till  1873.  Then  the  State  attempted  to 
deprive  the  Church  of  its  old  independence  by  introduc- 
ing Zwinglian  methods  of  government.  The  Church 
was  identified  with  the  nation,  absolute  freedom  in  creed 
was  granted  to  ministers,  and  from  the  Synod  all  legis- 
lative power  was  removed.  Against  such  crippling 
enactments  protests  were  made  in  vain,  and  accordingly, 
in  1873,  Godet  and  a  large  minority  seceded,  to  found 
the  flourishing  Evangelical  Church  of  Neuchatel^  which 
to-day  possesses  92  ministers  and  8628  communicants. 

C.  Nascent  Presbyterianism 

There  are  still  countries  in  Christian  Europe  where 
Protestantism  is  only  in  its  infancy.  In  Italy,  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  Belgium  the  efforts  of  Rome  to  check 
the  reforming  movement  in  the  sixteenth  century  were 
so  entirely  successful  that  Protestantism  was  crushed,  and 
all  trace  of  the  Presbyterian  Churches  which  had  been 
forming  disappeared.  But  with  the  growing  political 
liberalism  of  recent  generations  an  opportunity  has  been 
afforded  for  Protestantism  to  reappear,  and,  true  to  past 
memories,  the  lines  on  which  the  Protestant  beginnings 
are  being  made  are  mostly  those  of  Presbyterianism. 

I.  Presbyterianism  in  Italy.— The  unification  of 

Italy  under  a  constitutional  government  in  1861  marked 
the  opportunity  for  the  rise  of  Protestantism.  Up  to  that 
time  the  only  Protestant  Churches  in  Italy  had  been  those 


66  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

in  connection  with  the  foreign  consulates,  or  established 
for  the  benefit  of  foreign  commercial  residents.  Presby- 
terianism  had  been  iti  Italy  but  not  of'ii  ;  but  now  that 
religious  freedom  was  secured  it  was  possible  for  an 
Italian  Protestant  Church  to  be  born.  The  foster-mother 
was  ready.  On  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Cottian  Alps, 
in  the  Piedmont  valleys,  lingered  the  remnants  of  the 
old  Waldensian  Church.  The  greater  portion  of  the 
Waldensian  community  had  been  swallowed  up  in  the 
course  of  years  by  the  Reformed  Churches  of  Switzerland, 
but  the  southern  or  Italian  branch  had  retained  its  indi- 
viduality ;  and,  perfecting  its  old  semi-Presbyterian  con- 
stitution, had  survived  through  frequent  persecution  and 
abiding  penury.  By  it  the  opening  of  the  gates  of 
Italy  was  recognised  as  a  call  from  God  to  go  in  and 
possess  the  land,  and  for  the  last  fifty  years  this  small 
Waldensian  Church  has  laboured  incessantly  in  the 
cause  of  Protestant  truth.  The  Constitution  granted  to 
Piedmont  by  the  Sardinian  king  in  1849  was  its  first 
opportunity.  Churches  which  were  established  in 
Turin,  Genoa,  and  elsewhere  grew  rapidly,  as  much 
through  the  arrival  of  Protestant  refiigees  from  the  Papal 
Dominion  as  from  local  additions.  But  with  the  full 
political  development  of  1861  wider  operations  were 
entered  on.  From  Turin  the  centre  was  shifted  to 
Florence,  where,  through  the  help  of  Dr.  Stewart,  the 
revered  Free  Church  minister  of  the  Scots  Church  at 
Leghorn,  the  old  Palazzo  Salviati  was  secured  as  a 
Training  College  for  Waldensian  evangelists.  Inch  by 
inch  in  the  early  days  the  battle  for  toleration  had  to  be 
fought,  but  now  a  more  open  field  is  given  to  the  work 
of  the  evangelists,  and  as  the  result  of  their  labours  the 
Waldensian  Evangelical  Church  in  Italy  possesses  to-day 
18,000  communicants.  Alongside  of  the  Waldensian 
Church  is  the  Free  Italian  Church,  or,  as  it  is  now 
known.  The  Evangelical  Chmxh  of  Italy,  which  in  its 
origin  was  indebted  to  the  impassioned  oratory  of  Father 
Gavazzi  and  the  constructive  ability  of  Dr.  de  Sanctis, 
both  converts  from  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood.   The 


NASCENT  PRESBYTERIANISM  67 

Constitution  of  this  smaller  Church  is  also  Presbyterian, 
though  congregations  are  given  greater  independence 
than  is  usual  in  most  Presbyterian  communities.  Its 
communicants  number  about  1500. 

2.  Presbyterianism  in  Spain. — Spanish  Presby- 

terianism  is  yet  more  recent,  its  initiation  being  due  to 
certain  Scottish  friends  who,  in  1852,  formed  \}i\^  Spanish 
Evangelisation  Society  for  the  purpose  of  distributing  the 
Bible  through  this  most  ignorant  of  all  European  lands. 
Persecutions  in  1 860  drove  the  most  prominent  Protestants 
into  exile,  and  at  Gibraltar  the  refugees,  like  the  Dutch 
exiles  at  Emden,  adopted  a  Creed  and  Constitution  for  the 
Reformed  Church  to  be.  The  Creed  was  the  Westminster 
Confession  of  Faith,  and  the  Constitution  was  Presbyterian. 
By  the  Revolution  of  1868  the  door  was  opened  for 
the  exiles  to  return,  with  freedom  to  worship  God  as  they 
pleased.  The  Presbytery  of  Andalusia,  with  its  centre  at 
Seville,  is  the  result.  With  this  there  united,  in  1872,  a 
Presbyterian  Church  which  had  been  formed  in  Madrid, 
through  the  energy  of  Carrasco,  a  keen  Protestant  trained 
in  Lausanne.  These  two  sections  now  form  the  Spanish 
Christian  Church,  with  23  congregations  and  300  com- 
municants. For  its  support  and  progress  it  has  been 
greatly  indebted  to  the  Irish  Presbyterian  Church  and 
the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland. 

3.  Presbyterianism  in  Belgium. — After  the  de- 
spotic measures  of  Alva,  Protestantism  became  almost 
extinct  in  the  country  now  known  as  Belgium,  but 
lately  there  have  been  some  signs  of  a  revival.  Two 
small  Protestant  Churches  are  in  existence,  both  organ- 
ised on  Presbyterian  lines.  The  Union  of  Evangelical 
Churches  in  Belgium,  with  16  congregations,  receives  a 
small  endowment  from  the  strictly  impartial  State ; 
while  the  other,  the  Missionary  Christian  Church  of 
Belgium,  has  some  60  congregations  and  5000  com- 
municants. From  all  outward  signs  the  latter  is  the  more 
active  of  the  two,  and  has  served  herself  heir  to  the  Church 
of  the  early  days  by  adopting  as  her  creed  the  Confessio 
Belgica  of  the  sixteenth  century. 


68  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  PRESBYTERIAN   CHURCH   IN   SCOTLAND 

A.   The  Church  of  Scotland 

"C*OR  three  centuries  Scotland  has  been  the  centre 
-■-  of  Presbyterianism.  In  no  other  country  did 
the  system,  inaugurated  by  Calvin  at  Geneva,  find  so 
speedy  and  perfect  an  embodiment  as  here.  By  a  happy 
combination  of  circumstances,  the  civil  checks  vv^hich 
prevented  Continental  Presbyterianism  from  developing 
its  full  powers  were  not  sufficiently  strong  in  Scotland 
to  work  similar  harm,  and  as  a  consequence  the  Scottish 
Church  was  planted  on  a  foundation  so  firm  and  on 
principles  so  free  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  forming  the 
crown  of  European  Presbyterianism.  It  also  formed  the 
starting-point  of  the  wider  Presbyterianism  established 
in  the  lands  across  the  seas — in  the  United  States  of 
America,  Canada,  and  Australasia.  Into  the  story  of 
all  these  great  churches  its  history  enters  :  its  heroes  and 
martyrs,  its  struggles  and  its  victories,  its  virtues  and  its 
defects — all  are  shared  by  them.  The  history  of  this 
Mother  Church  of  Presbyterianism  has  been  told  in 
another  volume  of  this  series  :  here  can  be  given  only 
a  summary  of  the  most  notable  events. 

I.  The  Church  of  Knox. — The  First  General 
Assembly  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  Scotland  met  in 
1560,  and  announced  to  the  world  the  end  of  the  Scottish 
struggle  with  Rome.  Prudent  guidance  of  the  new 
system  and  a  careful  watch  against  the  schemes  of 
the  old  were  required  so  long  as  Mary  lived,  but  the  real 
struggle  was  ended.  Fortunately  for  Scotland,  the  man 
who  had  led  the  way  to  victory  was  well  qualified  for 
the    equally  arduous   task  of  maintaining   the  position 


THE  CHURCH  IN  SCOTLAND  69 

which  had  been  won.  In  John  /Cnox,  whom  Carlyle 
terms  "the  one  Scotchman  to  whom  of  all  others  his 
country  and  the  world  owe  a  debt,"  the  Reformed  Church 
possessed  a  leader  of  deep  religious  convictions,  invincible 
courage,  wide  knowledge  of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  a 
varied  experience  of  men  and  manners.  In  England, 
Frankfort,  and  Geneva,  he  had  lived  and  learned. 
Episcopacy,  Lutheranism,  and  Presbyterianism  had  all 
passed  under  his  observation,  and  of  his  experience 
Scotland  now  reaped  the  benefit  To  the  Reformed 
Church,  in  consultation  with  others,  he  supplied  in  quick 
succession  a  Creed,  a  Constitution,  and  a  Service,  all  of 
which  were  marked  by  a  breadth  of  view  and  a  freedom 
from  extremes  to  which  in  later  days  the  Church  has 
longingly  looked  back.  (i)  The  Confession  of  Faith, 
which  represented  the  Creed,  was  on  the  usual  Calvinistic 
lines,  but  with  a  softening  of  the  harsher  positions  ; 
while,  distinguishing  it  from  all  similar  documents,  is 
the  humility  of  its  preface,  where  possible  error  is 
acknowledged  and  amendment  volunteered  on  Scriptural 
refutation  being  forthcoming.  (2)  The  Constitution  of  tkr" 
Church,  as  set  forth  in  the  First  Book  of  Discipline, 
showed  a  like  indebtedness  in  its  main  features  to 
Geneva,  but  had  also  its  distinguishing  peculiarities. 
Ministers,  Teachers,  Elders,  and  Deacons  were  recognised 
as  the  only  office-bearers  whose  office  had  Scriptural 
sanction,  but  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  hour  Knox  did 
not  hesitate  to  develop  the  spirit  of  the  early  code,  even 
though  in  so  doing  he  might  seem  to  transgress  the  letter. 
There  were  but  twelve  Protestant  ministers  for  the  whole 
of  Scotland — a  most  inadequate  staff.  To  the  Scriptural 
offices  were  therefore  added  those  of  Superintetuient  and 
Reader,  the  former  being  entrusted  with  the  oversight 
and  development  of  districts,  while  the  latter,  under  his 
orders,  maintained  the  ordinances  of  worship  in  out- 
lying parts.  Semi-Episcopal  in  their  functions  as  the 
Superintendents  were,  the  principle  of  Presbyterian 
parity  was  not  transgressed.  They  remained  Presbyters 
in  subjection  to  the  General  Assembly.     In  the  institution 


^o  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

of  this  class  of  office-bearers  may  perhaps  be  seen  one 
effect  of  the  Reformer's  contact  with  Lutheranism.  (3)  By 
the  Book  of  Common  Order^  last  creation  of  his  busy 
brain,  Knox  completed  his  provision  for  the  Church's 
literary  needs  and  supplied  a  semi-liturgical  order  oi 
service  which  gave  voice  to  the  devotions  of  Scotsmen 
for  eighty  years.  The  firm  establishment  of  the  Church 
thus  equipped  was  the  work  of  the  Reformer's  later  years, 
and  in  the  face  of  much  opposition  he  succeeded.  He 
could  not  indeed  rescue  the  property  of  the  Church 
from  the  rapacity  of  the  nobility,  save  in  part,  but  in 
thoroughly  crushing  the  power  of  Rome  in  Scotland  and 
in  securing  the  existence  of  the  Reformed  Church  as  a 
spiritual  power  in  the  land,  he  was  completely  successful. 

2.  The  Church  of  Melville.— The  triumph  of 

Protestantism  did  not  mean  rest  to  Presbyterianism,  for 
no  sooner  had  the  contest  with  Rome  ended  than  there 
began  a  fierce  and  prolonged  fight  with  Prelacy.  The 
Church  of  Knox  was  Presbyterian,  but  of  a  broad  and 
flexible  type,  and  when  it  was  proposed,  for  the  purpose 
of  legally  drawing  the  revenues  attached  to  the  former 
bishoprics,  that  certain  ministers  should  be  entitled 
**  Bishops "  for  mere  name's  sake,  no  serious  objection 
was  taken.  No  doubt  the  gilding  of  the  pill  deceived 
some.  But  the  natural  result  appeared  when  the  existence 
of  Bishops  for  name's  sake  gave  rise  to  a  distinct 
Episcopal  party,  which  aimed  at  the  introduction  of 
real  Episcopal  government  in  the  Church.  The  danger 
to  Presbyterianism  was  great.  Episcopacy  has  never 
been  so  near  becoming  the  national  Church  system 
in  Scotland  as  it  was  in  those  early  days,  and  in 
all  likelihood,  had  it  not  been  for  the  app'^arance  of 
Andrew  Melville  on  the  scene,  Episcopacy  would  have 
triumphed.  This  "  Scottish  Hildebrand,"  as  Dean 
Stanley  calls  him,  after  a  course  of  study  at  Paris  and 
Geneva,  where  he  had  sat  at  the  feet  of  Beza  and  become 
an  ardent  Presbyterian,  returned  to  Scotland  in  1574, 
two  years  after  Knox's  death.  His  scholarship  and 
character  at  once  gave  him  the  leadership  in  the  Church, 


THE  CHURCH  IN  SCOTLAND  71 

and  made  it  an  easy  thing  for  him  to  impress  upon  her 
his  own  strong  Presbyterian  views.  From  the  Greek 
New  Testament  he  proved  to  the  Assembly  that  the 
offices  of  Bishop  and  Presbyter  were  identical,  and  that 
of  any  other  Bishop  than  the  simple  Presbyter  Scripture 
knew  nothing.  The  Assembly  resolved  that  the  Scottish 
Church  should  adhere  to  this  position.  Bishops  and 
Superintendents  were  deposed  from  office,  and  "pure" 
Presbyterian  ism  was  established.  The  Second  Book  of 
Discipline,  which  was  approved  by  the  Assembly  in 
1578,  completed  the  Constitution  of  the  Church,  the 
government  being  entrusted  to  an  ascending  series  of 
councils,  as  continues  to  be  the  case  to  the  present  day. 
In  thus  insisting  on  the  divine  right  of  Presbytery  and 
the  unlawfulness  of  Episcopacy,  Melville  went  beyond 
the  position  of  Knox,  and  undoubtedly  narrowed  the 
spirit  of  the  Scottish  Church.  To-day  we  have  returned 
to  Knox's  standpoint,  and,  while  maintaining  that 
Presbytery  is  best,  do  not  deny  that  Episcopacy  may 
be  good.  But  these  views  would  not  have  saved 
Presbyterianism  for  Scotland.  For  that,  Melville's 
dogmatism  was  a  necessity.  Against  nobles  who  were 
eager  for  the  spoils  which  would  come  to  them  through 
Episcopacy,  and  kings  who  by  their  "divine  right" 
would  fain  have  imposed  an  ecclesiastical  system  more 
consonant  with  despotic  rule,  only  men  who  were  equally 
dogmatic  in  their  Presbyterianism  could  have  made  head- 
way. The  very  narrowing  of  Presbyterianism  proved  its 
salvation. 

3-  The    Century    of    Struggle  —  Presbsrtery 
versus    Episcopacy    (1584- 1688). —The    century 

following  Melville  was  one  of  unceasing  controversy  with 
Episcopacy,  in  the  course  of  which  Presbytery  oftener 
than  once  was  overthrown.  For  this  it  had  to  thank 
the  Stuart  kings.  Ja??ies  VI.  and  I.  while  in  Scotland 
had  lauded  Presbyterianism  to  the  skies  and  by  the 
Act  of  1592  had  given  it  full  civil  sanction,  but  when 
called  to  the  English  throne  he  changed  his  mind  and 
became  enamoured  of  Episcopacy.      Henceforth  nothing 


72  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

would  satisfy  him  but  to  assimilate  the  Scottish  Church 
to  her  southern  sister  ;  and  so  long  as  he  lived  he  worked  |\ 
for  this  end.  Melville,  the  arch- Presbyter,  was  driven  jl 
into  banishment,  artcl  in  1610  his  "  unscriptural "  Bishops  » 
were  imposed  upon  the  Scottish  Presbyters.  But  so 
cautious  in  his  measures  was  King  James,  that  beyond 
grumbling  discontent  little  resentment  was  shown  by  the 
Church.  It  was  otherwise  when  his  successor,  Charles  I. , 
sought  to  carry  matters  with  a  high  hand,  and,  urged  on 
by  Laud,  openly  asserted  the  royal  supremacy  by  imposing 
Ecclesiastical  Canons  and  a  new  Service-book  upon  the 
Scottish  Church.  The  uproar  in  St.  Cues'  Cathedral  hi 
1637,  when  the  first  attempt  to  use  the  book  was  made, 
v  followed  by  the  signing  of  the  National  Covenant,  when 
nobles  and  citizens  covenanted  with  God  to  defend  their 
religious  rights,  gave  evidence  that  the  spirit  of  Melville 
still  lived.  At  one  blow  an  Assembly  at  Glasgow  (1638) 
cast  down  Episcopacy  and  restored  to  the  Church  her 
old  Presbyterian  system,  when,  fortunately  for  the  bold 
Presbyters,  the  King's  troubles  with  his  English  subjects 
compelled  him  to  stifle  his  resentment,  and  the  Church 
was  left  untouched.  The  brief  period  of  Presbyterian 
supremacy  which  followed  was  signalised  by  the  strange 
episode  of  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  (1643),  ^^^ 
by  the  memorable  Westminster  Assembly  (1643- 1648), 
when  the  Standards  which  have  ever  since  ruled  in 
the  Church  were  framed  by  English  Divines  and  Com- 
missioners from  the  Church  of  Scotland.  With  the 
Restoration  (1660)  the  troubles  of  Presbytery  began 
anew.  The  young  king,  Charles  II.,  having  adopted 
the  Episcopal  cause  as  his  own,  a  fresh  consignment 
of  Bishops  was  sent  down  to  Scotland,  and  Presbytery 
was  driven  into  the  wilderness.  To  Scotland's  shame 
be  it  said  that  in  the  cruel  persecution  which  fol- 
/  lowed,  the  King's  chosen  agents  were  men  of  Scottish 
/  birth.  For  eight  years  Scottish  Presbyterians  had  to 
/  experience  the  trials  which  their  continental  brethren 
knew  so  well.  It  was  a  crime  to  be  a  loyal  Presbyterian, 
and,  by  a  system  of  dragonnades,  marked  by  blood  and 


THE  CHURCH  IN  SCOTLAND  73 

cruelty,  the  royal  troops  sought  to  convince  men  of  the 
divine  authority  of  Episcopacy.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered 
at  that,  under  such  discipline,  the  spirit  of  the  Cove- 
I  nanters  did  not  grow  sweet  and  tolerant.  Heroic  they 
I  were  even  unto  death,  but  with  man's  hand  so  strong 
against  them  their  hearts  grew  narrow  and  bitter. 
Austerity  in  life  and  narrowness  in  religion  became  the 
tests  of  piety  ;  tolerance  of  Episcopacy,  or  attendance 
at  a  curate's  service,  were  held  to  be  marks  of  low 
religious  life  ;  mutually  suspicious  sects  sprang  up,  each 
thinking  the  other  was  betraying  the  cause.  Yet  the 
Church  had  need  of  all.  Without  \\iQ.doiir  Covenanters, 
the  Presbyterian  banner  would  surely  have  gone  down  in 
those  awful  days ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  but  for  the 
presence  of  the  more  moderate  party,  it  is  very  doubtful 
if,  when  the  day  of  deliverance  came,  that  banner  would 
again  have  been  placed  over  the  National  Church  of 
Scotland.  Theday  came  in  1688,  when  the  last  of  the 
Stuart  kings  ned  before  an  enraged  nation,  and  William 
of  Orange  ascended  the  throne.  Presbyterian  though  he 
was,  he  would,  not  force  his  Church  upon  the  people; 
'bjit  .when  the. ScottishXonvention  declared  that  "  Prelacy 
was  contrary  to  the  inclinations  of  the  generality  of  the 
people,  and  ought  to  be  abolished,"  William  acceded  to 
the  request.  la  1690. the  long  warfare  came  to  an  end^ 
apd  Church  Government  by  Kirk- Sessions,  Presbyteries, 
Provincial  Synods,  and  GeneraTAssemLly'^  was  declared 
JiL_be__the  only  Government  of  the  National  Church. 
This  was  finally  ratified  by  the  Act  of  Security,  appended 
to  the  Treaty  of  Union  with  England  in  1707. 

4-  Divisions  within  the  Church. — The   year 

1 7 12  supplies  the  key  to  the  divisions  of  Scottish 
Presbyterianism.  It  was  then  that  the  fatal  Act  was 
passed  by  Queen  Anne's  Parliament  which  reimposed 
lay  patronage  on  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  thereby 
sowed  the  seed  of  future  controversy.  According  to  the 
Presbytenan  ideal  two  and  only  two  factors  are  essential 
for  the  proper  settlement  of  a  minister  in  a  charge,  viz. 
the  Call  by  the  congregation,  and  Collation^  after  inquiry, 


74  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

by  the  Presbytery.  The  privileges  of  the  Christian 
people  and  the  well-being  of  the  Church  are  thus  alike 
conserved.  By  the  Revolution  Settlement  a  system  had 
been  introduced  which  was  an  approach  to  this  ideal. 
Private  patronage,  which  had  been  previously  in  force, 
was  abolished,  and  the  nomination  of  a  minister  entrusted 
to  the  heritors  and  elders.  Their  nominee,  if  approved 
by  the  congregation,  was  entitled  to  collation  at  the 
hands  of  the  Presbytery.  It  was  a  prudent  compromise, 
and  worked  reasonably  well,  but  after  being  the  law  of 
the  Church  for  over  twenty  years  it  was  arbitrarily 
annulled  by  the  Government,  and  private  patronage 
reimposed  (1712).  In  vain  did  the  Assembly  protest 
and  plead  that  it  was  a  breach  of  the  Treaty  of  Union, 
which  had  safeguarded  the  Scottish  Church  from  parlia- 
mentaiy  interference.  For  the  first  time,  but  not  for 
the  last,  English  ignorance  of  Scottish  ecclesiastical 
affairs  resulted  in  the  British  ParUament's  inflicting  a 
serious  blow  on  Scotland's  Church. 

The  fruits  of  the  action  in  due  course  appeared. 
Thanks  to  the  good  feeling  of  many  of  the  patrons,  who, 
as  National  Churchmen  themselves,  disapproved  of  the 
Act,  its  provisions  were  for  a  time  evaded.  The  patrons 
failed  to  nominate  to  vacant  charges — a  contingency  for 
which  the  Assembly  had  to  provide,  and  in  doing  so  it 
fell  back  on  the  old  arrangement  of  1690,  giving  the 
right  of  nomination  to  the  heritors  and  elders.  To  this 
was  due  the  Ji7-st  Secession.  In  the  sight  of  Ebenezer 
Erskiiie  the  rights  of  the  congregation  were  ignored  by 
the  Assembly's  action.  "What  difference,"  he  pro- 
tested,  "  does  a  piece  of  land  make  between  man  and 
man  in  the  affairs  of  Christ's  kingdom  ?  By  this  act  we 
show  respect  to  the  man  with  the  gold  ring  and  gay 
clothing,  beyond  the  man  with  the  vile  raiment  and  poor 
attire."  From  words  it  came  to  deeds.  A  rebuke  at 
the  bar  of  the  Assembly  led  Erskine  to  wilder  accusa- 
tions, which  resulted  in  his  withdrawal  from  the  ministry 
of  the  National  Church.  Three  other  like-minded 
ministers  joined  him,  and  together  they  formed  at  Gairney 


THE  CHURCH  IN  SCOTLAND  75 

Bridge  the  first  Associate  Presbytery  (1733).  It  was 
the  first  instance  of  the  unhappy  separatist  spirit  which 
dominated  the  Scottish  Church  for  the  next  hundred  years. 
The  second  Secession  came  twenty  years  later.  Patrons 
had  grown  more  tenacious  of  their  legal  rights,  and 
unwelcome  presentees  were  so  frequently  thrust  upon 
congregations,  that,  between  1740  and  1750,  upwards  of 
fifty  disputed  settlements  had  to  be  referred  to  the 
Assembly.  Unfortunately  for  the  Church,  the  Assemblies 
ot  the  day  were  infected  with  a  spirit  of  militarism. 
The  protests  of  congregations  were  treated  as  acts  of 
insubordination,  and  when  (1752)  the  Presbytery  ot 
Dunfermline  showed  itself  more  sympathetic,  by  refusing 
to  ordain  an  unwelcome  presentee,  the  Assembly  crowned 
its  militarism  by  deposing  from  the  ministry  one  of  the 
defaulting  Presbyters,  Thomas  Gillespie.  Gillespie  was 
a  loyal  churchman,  but  in  spite  of  himself  he  was 
forced  to  become  the  founder  of  the  Relief  Synod y  whose 
formation  marked  the  second  Secession  from  the  Church. 
5-  Moderatism. — The  Secessions,  though  primarily 
due  to  the  working  of  the  Patronage  Act,  were  largely 
helped  by  a  growing  diversity  of  views  within  the  Church. 
In  every  country  in  Europe  at  the  time  a  rebound  was 
felt  from  the  intensity  of  religious  life  and  narrowness  of 
thought  which  had  marked  the  previous  centuries ;  and 
in  the  Scottish  Church  the  rebound  took  the  form  of 
Aloderatism,  The  extreme  earnestness  of  the  Cove- 
nanters had  passed  away,  and  in  its  place  had  sprung  up 
a  spirit  of  religious  tolerance,  which  in  not  a  few  cases 
shaded  off  into  easy-going  indifference.  Scholarship  and 
culture  were  encouraged  among  the  clergy  to  an  extent 
unprecedented,  so  that,  from  a  literary  standpoint,  the 
title  of  the  "Golden  Age  of  the  Scottish  Church," 
which  has  been  applied  to  this  period,  is  well  deserved. 
But  there  is  no  doubt  that  by  the  growth  of  Moderatism 
the  cause  of  the  Seceders  was  greatly  aided,  and  the 
Church  correspondingly  weakened.  Their  chapels 
formed  a  congenial  home  for  those  in  whom  the  cove- 
nanting spirit  still  burned,  and  the  inadequate  efforts  of 


76  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

the  National  Church  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  growing 
population  helped  still  further  to  swell  their  numbers. 
By  the  end  of  the  century  they  were  a  power  in  the 
land,  possessing  upwards  of  200  congregations  and 
nearly  as  many  ministers. 

6.    Revival  in  the  Church. — The  new  century 

brought  new  life,  and  revived  within  the  Church  the 
love  of  the  old  Evangel.  Awaking  to  a  higher  sense  of 
her  calling  as  a  national  witness  for  Christ,  the  Church 
realised  that  witnessing  meant  working.  To  the 
brilliant  coterie  of  litterateurs,  which  had  brought  name 
and  fame  to  Scotland  in  the  eighteenth  century,  there 
succeeded  an  equally  brilliant  band  of  Churchmen,  of 
whom  the  most  notable  were  Dr.  Andrew  Thomson, 
Principal  Baird,  Dr.  Inglis,  and  Dr.  Chalmers.  Under 
their  inspiring  leadership  the  Church  embarked  on  a 
series  of  schemes  of  Christian  work,  thoroughly  catholic 
in  their  nature  and  extent.  The  Education  of  Youth^ 
long  neglected,  regained  the  place  in  the  Church's  in- 
terest which  it  had  held  in  the  days  of  Knox.  The 
claims  of  the  "  Scot  abroad  "  were  recognised  by  the 
inauguration  of  the  Colonial  Scheme,  under  which 
ministers  were  sent  out  to  the  fast-growing  colonies  of 
Canada  and  Australasia.  In  India  a  place  was  at  last 
secured  on  the  ecclesiastical  establishment  for  Scottish 
chaplains,  to  minister  to  Scotland's  sons — a  step  which 
had  the  important  consequence  of  opening  the  eyes  of 
the  Church  to  her  missio7iary  duty.  Dr.  Bryce  of 
Calcutta,  the  first  Indian  chaplain,  so  pressed  the  needs 
of  the  Hindu  on  the  attention  of  the  Church  that  in 
1829  Alexander  Duff,  the  first  missionary  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  sailed  for  India.  Of  all  the  new  develop- 
ments, however,  the  most  important,  in  the  light  of 
its  consequences,  was  the  Church  Extension  move- 
ment, which  is  identified  with  the  name  of  Dr.  Chalmers. 
His  eloquence  and  energy  so  roused  the  Church  to  the 
urgent  need  of  providing  additional  church  accommoda- 
tion for  the  largely-increased  population,  that  by  1834 
there  were  200  Chapels  of  Ease  dotted  over  the  country. 


THE  CHURCH  IN  SCOTLAND  77 

7.  The  "  Disruption." — In  the  midst  of  this  pros- 
perity the  old  Patronage  trouble  again  appeared,  to 
work  fresh  harm.  The  revival  of  Church  life  had 
quickened  men's  sense  of  the  defects  of  a  system  which 
gave  no  power  to  a  congregation  in  the  choice  of  its 
spiritual  guide.  By  the  Assembly  the  injustice  was  felt 
as  keenly  as  by  any,  and  in  1834  it  passed  by  a  majority 
the  Veto  Act,  which  debarred  Presbyteries  from  inducting 
a  presentee  if  his  appointment  were  disapproved  of  by 
a  majority  of  the  heads  of  families  in  the  congregation. 
This  Act  it  was  which  plunged  the  Scottish  Church  into 
a  conflict  whose  heat  has  not  even  yet  quite  died  out. 
Disputed  settlements  soon  occurred.  At  Auchterarder, 
the  first  of  these,  the  nominee  of  the  patron  was  vetoed 
by  practically  the  whole  of  the  congregation  ;  and  on  the 
Presbytery  refusing  to  proceed  with  his  induction,  he 
applied  to  the  Court  of  Session.  Plis  application  was 
successful,  and,  to  the  bewilderment  of  the  Church, 
the  Veto  Act  was  pronounced  illegal.  On  appeal  the 
judgment  was  confirmed  by  the  House  of  Lords,  and 
it  was  made  evident  to  all  that  a  serious  battle  between 
Church  and  State  had  begun.  That  the  Church  had 
a  grievance,  and  a  great  one,  all  admitted — even  the 
State  did  not  deny  it — but  in  her  method  of  redressing 
it  the  highest  tribunal  decided  that  she  had  acted  ultra 
vires.  A  choice  of  two  courses  now  lay  before  her. 
Either  she  might  bend  before  the  law  and  seek  by  con- 
stitutional means  to  have  the  law  amended,  or  resenting 
the  law  as  a  grievance  outweighing  all  the  benefits  of 
Establishment,  she  might  resign  her  position  as  the 
Established  Church  and  go  out  into  the  wilderness. 
One -third  of  the  ministers  and  elders  of  the  Church 
chose  the  latter  course,  and  on  i%th  May  1843  the 
decisive  step  was  taken.  Dr.  Chalmers,  Dr.  Welsh, 
Dr.  Candlish,  and  many  others  of  the  best  of  the 
Scottish  clergy  and  laity,  for  conscience'  sake — albeit, 
as  we  think,  a  conscience  misdirected — severed  their 
connection  with  the  National  Church  and  proceeded 
to    form    The  Free    Church   of  Scotland.      It  was    the 


fS  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

third,   the   greatest,  and  let  us  hope  the  last,  of  the 
Secessions. 

8.  After  '43.  —  The  unflinching  determination  of 
the  Scottish  people  has  never  been  displayed  to  better 
advantage  than  in  the  conduct  of  the  Church  after  the 
shock  of  '43.  A  grievous  shock  it  was  beyond  all 
dispute.  Out  of  1203  ministers,  451  had  forsaken  her. 
In  the  large  towns  her  chief  pulpits  were  empty  ;  of 
her  country  parishes  more  than  one-fourth  were  in  like 
condition  ;  of  her  Chapels  of  Ease,  her  latest  joy  and 
pride,  nigh  two-thirds  had  deserted  the  mother  that 
bore  them  ;  and  her  very  claim  to  the  fabrics  of  these 
last,  which  were  burdened  with  a  debt  of  ^30,000, 
had  to  be  vindicated  in  the  Civil  Court.  Abroad,  the 
outlook  was  equally  discouraging.  Her  Indian  chap- 
lains stood  true ;  but  of  all  her  missionaries,  Indian 
and  Jewish,  only  one  remained  steadfast.  Taking  their 
converts  and  the  good  name  of  the  Scottish  Church 
along  with  them,  the  others  cast  in  their  lot  with  the 
Free  Church.  The  task  of  filling  up  the  gaps  at  home 
and  abroad,  of  remedying  acknowledged  defects,  and 
of  prosecuting  at  the  same  time  the  schemes  of  Christian 
work,  whose  previous  success  had  been  largely  due  to 
the  energy  of  men  no  longer  in  her  ranks,  was  sufficient 
to  try  the  mettle  of  the  Church  to  the  utmost.  How 
well  she  stood  the  trial,  let  the  progress  of  the  last  fifty 
years  bear  witness. 

9.  Recent  Progress. — The  half  century  of  her 
history,  which  has  just  concluded,  has  been  marked 
by  several  striking  developments,  (i)  Constitutional 
Reforms.  After  the  Secession  was  an  accomplished 
fact,  the  Church's  first  care  was  to  provide  a  legal 
remedy  for  the  evils  which  had  wrought  such  harm. 
And  very  speedily  this  was  done.  Lord  Aberdeen's 
Act  of  1843  granted  a  "reasonable"  veto  to  congrega- 
tions ;  Sir  James  Graham's  Act  of  1844,  by  giving 
**  chapel "  ministers  a  seat  in  the  church  courts,  removed 
another  grievance  ;  and  thirty  years  later  the  last  ground 
of    complaint  disappeared  in  the  abolition   of   private 


THE  CHURCH  IN  SCOTLAND  79 

patronage,  and  the  introduction  of  the  system  of  election 
of  ministers  by  the  congregation.  (2)  Home  Mission 
work.  Thanks  to  Dr.  Chalmers,  the  truth  that  Home 
Mission  work  is  the  first  duty  of  a  National  Church  had 
been  so  fixed  in  the  Church's  mind,  that  not  for  a 
moment  did  even  a  temporary  abandonment  of  that 
duty  suggest  itself.  Into  the  place  of  Dr.  Chalmers 
stepped  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Church's  sons,  Dr. 
James  Robertson,  wlio,  to  Chalmers's  ideal  of  supplying 
churches  sufficient  for  the  population,  added  that  of 
providing  endowtnenis  sufficient  for  the  churches.  So 
vigorously  have  these  twin  schemes  been  prosecuted  that 
600  additional  churches  have  been  built,  and  384 
new  parishes  have  been  endowed,  at  a  cost  to  the 
Church  of  over  ;(^3,ooo,000.  (3)  Foreign  Mission 
work.  By  the  loss  of  her  missionaries  and  their  converts, 
the  Church  had  to  commence  her  Foreign  Mission 
operations  anew.  The  mission  buildings  at  the  various 
stations  remained  in  her  possession,  but  they  were 
tenantless,  and  a  few  years  had  to  pass  before  the  strain 
at  home  permitted  of  fresh  missionaries  being  sent  out. 
Then  the  work  was  resumed,  and  has  continued  to 
receive  an  increasing  support  from  the  Church.  From  a 
staff  of  one  in  1843,  her  workers  have  increased  to 
83  Europeans  and  420  natives,  while  her  converts 
number  6000.  (4)  Church  Services.  Accompany- 
ing these  developments  in  the  Church's  work  has 
been  a  steady  improvement  in  her  conduct  of  public 
worship.  The  severe  and  somewhat  repellent  type  of 
service  which  used  to  be  populatly  identified  with 
Presbyterianism,  is  fast  passing  away,  and  in  its  place 
has  come  a  service  where  devotional  reverence,  musical 
sweetness,  and  outward  seemliness  combine  to  help  the 
worshipper  in  his  approaches  unto  God. 

10.  Popularity  of  the  Church.  —  The  devotion 

which  the  Church  has  shown  to  her  national  calling,  and 
her  readiness  to  embody  new  convictions  in  new  methods 
of  work  for  the  good  of  the  nation,  have  had  their  reward. 
A  continuous  increase  in  her  membership,  far  in  excess  of 


8o  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

the  increase  in  population,  speaks  of  a  growing  affection 
on  the  part  of  the  Scottish  people.  Her  communicants 
in  1895  numbered  620,000,  exceeding  by  80,000  the 
combined  membership  of  the  other  two  great  Pres- 
byterian Churches  in  Scotland,  while  her  hold  upon  the 
people  is  even  greater  than  these  figures  would  imj:)ly. 
The  movement  for  Disestablishment,  so  keenly  pressed 
by  some,  has  but  added  to  the  Church's  popularity. 
Attack  has  led  to  inquiry  into  her  merits  and  her  claims, 
with  the  result  that  the  people  are  showing  themselves 
the  more  resolved  that  no  harm  shall  be  done  to  an  insti- 
tution so  ancient,  so  honourable,  and  so  beneficial  to  the 
nation.  It  is  well  for  Scottish  Presbyterianism,  and  well 
for  British  Protestantism,  that  it  should  be  so.  These 
are  not  the  times  when  a  national  confession  of  Pro- 
testant Christianity  should  be  lightly  cast  aside.  Never 
were  the  weighty  words  of  Dean  Stanley  truer  than  now : 
"  Every  Episcopalian  ought  to  be  thankful  for  the  exist- 
ence of  a  living  Christian  Church,  which  shows  that 
outside  the  pale  of  prelacy  Christian  life  and  Christian 
truth  can  flourish,  even  should  it  fail  among  the  Epis- 
copal communions." 

B.   The  United  Presbyterian  Church 

With  the  great  Secession  of  '43  the  divisive  tendency 
of  Scottish  Presbyterianism  reached  its  climax.  Since 
then  the  forces  which  make  for  union  have  been  in  the 
ascendant,  and  of  their  successful  working  the  most  con- 
spicuous evidence  is  The  Ufiited  Presbyterian  Church. 

I.  Origin  of  tlie  Church. — In  the  main  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church  has  resulted  from  the  union  of  the 
two  Secession  Churches  of  the  eighteenth  century.  These 
in  their  isolation  had  pushed  the  divisive  principle  to 
an  extreme  which  is  humbling  to  Scottish  Christianity. 
Of  the  two  the  Secession  Church  of  1733  sinned  the 
most.  In  1747  a  trivial  question  as  to  the  lawfulness 
of  an  oath,  which  was  imposed  on  burgesses,  caused  a 
division  into  the  Burghers  and  the  Ant i- Burghers.      By 


THE  CHURCH  IN  SCOTLAND  8i 

the  rise  of  **  Voluntary  "  views  in  the  end  of  the  century, 
and  the  emergence  of  a  difference  of  opinion  on  the  bind- 
ing force  of  the  Covenants,  the  process  of  fission  was 
repeated,  and  four  separate  communities  came  into 
existence,  the  Old  and  the  New  Light  Burghers,  and 
the  Old  and  New  Light  Anti-Burghers.  Then  began 
the  reaction.  In  1820  the  two  New  Lights  coalesced, 
forming  the  United  Secession  Church,  to  which  was 
added  in  1847  the  old  Relief  Church  of  Gillespie.  The 
product  of  this  final  union  is  the  flourishing  United 
Presbyterian  Church  of  to-day,  with  a  membership  of 
nearly  200,000,  and  ministers  numbering  over  600. 

2.  Special  Features. — As  with  all  the  Scottish 
Presbyterian  Churches,  the  standards  of  the  National 
Church  have  been  adhered  to,  but  a  century  and  a  half 
of  separate  existence  has  developed  in  the  United  Pres- 
byterian Church  some  distinctive  features. 

(i)  Foremost  of  these  is  the  Prominence  given  to 
Voluntaryism.  It  was  not  always  so.  Neither  Erskine 
nor  Gillespie  was  a  voluntaiy  ;  but  a  lengthened  trial  of 
enforced  voluntaryism  has  led  their  descendants  to  elevate 
this  practice  into  a  principle.  The  unjustifiableness  of 
an  Established  Church,  though  not  an  article  in  the 
standards,  is  now  a  working  principle  of  the  majority  of 
the  ministers  of  the  denomination. 

(2)  A  second  noteworthy  feature  is  the  Status  and 
Distrilmtion  of  her  membership.  Her  members  are 
recruited  most  largely  from  the  well-to-do  middle 
classes,  and  as  a  consequence  her  power  is  greatest 
where  these  are  most  numerous.  In  the  Highlands  she 
is  scarcely  represented,  and  as  a  rule  in  country  districts 
throughout  Scotland  she  is  weak,  but  in  the  towns  and 
cities  of  the  lowlands  her  stately  churches,  vigorous  min- 
istry, and  influential  membership  are  well  in  evidence. 

(3)  Most  gratifying,  from  a  Catholic  standpoint,  is 
the  third  feature,  her  zeal  for  Foreign  Missions — a 
feature  so  pronounced  as  to  warrant  the  Church  being 
called  the  Missiona?y  Church  of  Scotland.  Third  in  her 
membership,  she  is  first  in  the  number  of  her  missionaries, 

C 


82  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

first  in  the  number  of  converts,  and  easily  first  in  the 
proportionate  contributions  to  the  mission  cause  of  her 
individual  members. 

C.    The  Free  Church 

This  youngest  and  strongest  of  the  offshoots  from  the 
old  Scottish  Church  enjoys  the  unique  distinction  of  never 
having  known  the  day  of  small  things.  The  Free  Church 
started  in  life  full  grown,  possessing  a  numerous  and  able 
clergy,  a  zealous  staff  of  missionaries,  and  a  large  and 
enthusiastic  membership.  The  splendid  testimony  to  the 
living  power  of  the  conscience  which  had  been  given 
by  470  ministers  surrendering  an  annual  income  of 
^100,000,  forsaking  hearth  and  home,  and  going  out 
into  the  unknown,  appealed  to  multitudes  who  knew  little 
or  nothing  of  the  cause  of  the  sacrifice.  The  fact  was 
sufficiently  eloquent.  Everywhere  throughout  Protestant 
Christendom  the  tale  of  the  wondrous  sacrifice  was  heard 
with  pride.  Under  the  skilful  guidance  of  Dr.  Candlish 
and  Dr.  Chalmers  this  widespread  enthusiasm  was  at 
once  directed  into  a  practical  channel. 

I .  Perfecting  her  Equipment. — After  the  shock  of 

'43  the  cry  of  the  National  Church  had  been  for  men  to 
fill  the  vacant  places  and  carry  on  the  work  ;  with  the 
Free  Church  the  cry  was  of  necessity  for  money.  Men 
she  had  in  abundance,  and  congregations  many  waiting 
to  be  ministered  to,  but  churches,  manses,  colleges, 
schools,  and,  in  the  foreign  field,  mission  buildings, 
had  all  to  be  provided.  For  this  money  was  an 
urgent  necessity,  and  with  marvellous  rapidity  con- 
tributions poured  into  the  Church's  treasury  sufficient 
for  all  her  needs.  Her  first  care  was  to  provide  for  the 
support  of  her  ministers,  and  by  the  famous  Sustentation 
Fund  this  was  successfully  accomplished.  Every  member 
of  a  congregation  was  requested  to  contribute,  according 
to  his  ability,  to  a  central  fund,  from  which  each  minister 
should  annually  receive  an  equal  dividend.  Thus  "each 
congregation  should  do  its  part  in  sustaining  the  whole, 


THE  CHURCH  IN  SCOTLAND  83 

and  the  whole  should  sustain  each  congregation." 
Suggested  by  Candlish  and  worked  out  by  Chalmers, 
the  scheme  was  in  readiness  in  1842,  and  prior  to  '43 
had  been  tentatively  applied,  so  far  as  to  make  it 
evident  that  the  plan  would  work.  Associations  to  the 
number  of  647,  and  money  in  hand  to  the  amount  of 
;^i 7,000,  were  a  good  augury  for  the  future.  In  1844 
the  fund  reached  ;^6 1,000,  and  since  then,  though  slightly 
altered  in  its  mode  of  working,  and  showing  occasional 
variations,  it  has  risen  to  an  annual  average  of  j^200,ooo. 
The  Building  Fund  for  erecting  churches  and  manses 
met  with  an  equally  generous  reception.  At  the  first 
Assembly  ;^I04,776  was  reported  to  be  ready  for  the 
work,  and  within  four  years  700  churches  were  erected. 
Theological  Colleges  and  Country  Schools  followed  in  quick 
succession,  and  when  in  1872  the  Scottish  schools  passed 
from  the  control  of  the  Churches  into  that  of  the  State, 
it  was  estimated  that  in  thirty  years  the  Free  Church 
had  spent  on  education  ;[^6oo,ooo.  On  the  Mission 
Fund  a  like  rapid  adjustment  was  seen.  There  the  Free 
Church  was  strikingly  fortunate  in  securing  the  adhesion 
of  the  whole  mission  force  of  the  Scottish  Church. 
Fourteen  Indian  missionaries  and  six  Jewish,  accom- 
panied by  their  converts,  went  over  to  her  side — a 
heavy  financial  burden  at  the  time  no  doubt,  but  a 
most  valuable  accession  to  the  Church.  Nor  did  the 
Church  hesitate  to  accept  it  with  acclamation.  Voluntary 
sacrifices  on  the  part  of  the  missionaries  for  the  first  few 
years  made  the  burden  easier,  and  secured  for  the 
Church  what  is  now  a  large  and  efficient  missionary 
department,  prosecuting  its  labours  in  India,  Syria, 
South  Africa,  and  the  South  Sea  Islands. 

2.  Notable  Features. — Among  the  notable  features 
of  the  Free  Church  of  to-day  may  be  mentioned  three^ 

(l)  Her  increasing  Voluntaryism. — By  her  origin  aJ»i 
her  standards  the  Church  is  pronouncedly  anti-voluntai^y, 
Chalmers,  her  great  leader,  was  a  strong  defender  of  the 
necessity  of  an  Established  Church,  and  in  words  that 
are  well  known  he  declared  the  principles  of  the  ChurqU 


84  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

he  founded.  ''Though  we  quit  the  Establishment,  we 
go  out  on  the  Establishment  principle.  We  quit  a 
vitiated  Establishment,  but  would  rejoice  in  returning  to 
a  pure  one."  But  times  are  changed  and  the  Free 
Church  has  changed  with  them.  Like  the  earlier  Seces- 
sion Churches  she  has  become  increasingly  enamoured 
of  the  voluntary  principle,  and  correspondingly  hostile  to 
an  Established  Church.  At  least  her  Assemblies  have 
become  so,  although  there  are  good  grounds  for  thinking 
that  a  considerable  number  of  her  members  do  not  share 
in  the  aberration. 

(2)  Uniform  Distribution  of  her  Membership. — 
In  this  she  differs  from  the  United  Presbyterian  Church. 
The  enthusiasm  of  1843  was  not  confined  to  any  one 
locality  or  class.  Town  and  country,  north  and  south, 
rich  and  poor  contributed  their  share,  and  to  the  present 
day  a  fair  distribution  of  Free  Church  members  over  the 
whole  country  still  continues.  With  her  1035  churches 
and  341,000  communicants,  she  wields  a  great  power  in 
the  land,  although  the  comparative  slowness  of  her  growth 
in  recent  years  would  seem  to  point  to  a  somewhat  waning 
influence  over  the  people.  The  fires  of  fifty  years  ago  are 
dying  out  with  the  removal  of  the  causes  of  the  contro- 
versy, and  as  a  consequence  the  Church,  which  was  born 
in  controversy,  has  lost  one  of  the  sources  of  her  strength. 

(3)  Her  Literary  Activity. — This  is  of  all  others 
the  best -known  mark  of  the  Free  Church  of  to-day, 
and  Scotsmen  of  all  the  churches  rejoice  to  acknowledge 
its  existence.  It  is  also  noteworthy  that  though  a  few 
years  ago  the  most  consen^ative  of  churches,  she  has 
rapidly  taken  up  a  position  among  the  more  advanced. 
The  protesting  voices  of  the  older  school,  which  drove 
from  his  chair  the  late  Professor  Robertson  Smith,  have 
become  fewer  and  less  powerful.  To  the  many  younger 
scholars  and  teachers  who  have  since  then  come  to  the 
front,  a  reassuring  welcome  has  been  given.  In  almost 
every  department  of  theological  study  the  Free  Church 
now  possesses  men  whose  influence  is  recognised  through- 
out the  Protestant  world. 


THE  CHURCH  IN  IRELAND  85 


CHAPTER   VI 

THE    PRESBYTERIAN    CHURCH    IN    IRELAND 

THE  Irish  Presbyterian  Church  is  the  oldest  daughter 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  like  many  of  the  later 
offshoots  from  the  same  stem,  owes  her  origin  to  Scottish 
colonisation.  The  collapse  of  the  Irish  rebellion  ^  in  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  the  flight  of 
the  Earls  of  Tyrone  and  Tyrconnel,  had  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  the  crown  an  immense  stretch  of  forfeited 
territory  in  the  North  of  Ireland.  Through  the  wisdom 
of  King  James  the  vacant  land  was  granted  on  favour- 
able terms  to  British  colonists,  and  so  steady  was  the 
stream  from  Scotland  that  in  a  short  time  the  whole  of 
Ulster  assumed  a  markedly  Scottish  complexion. 

I.  First  Introduction  of  Presbyterianism.— 

The  rapid  increase  in  the  population,  however  satis- 
factory to  the  civil  authorities,  proved  a  cause  of  great 
perplexity  to  the  rulers  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
of  the  country.  Their  new  sheep,  whose  reputation  was 
often  none  of  the  best,  were  far  too  numerous  for  the 
few  established  shepherds,  and  yet  so  unattractive  was 
the  country  that  no  offers  of  service  from  the  more  com- 
fortably-housed clergy  in  England  were  forthcoming. 
Providentially  for  Ireland  it  happened  that  at  this  time 
Episcopacy  in  Scotland  was  enjoying  one  of  its  brief 
triumphs.  Presbyterian  ministers  were  being  driven 
from  their  charges,  and  to  them  in  their  distress  the  tidings 
of  Ulster's  need  was  a  veritable  message  from  God. 
Across  the  narrow  channel  they  went  and  proffered  their 
services,  where  they  met  with  a  welcome  from  the  Bishops, 
whose  heartiness  and  liberal-mindedness  is  a  standing  re- 
proof to  later  times.     At  the  head  of  the  Irish  Church  for 


86  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

the  greater  part  of  this  period  was  the  catholic  -  spirited 
Ussher,  in  his  theology  as  keen  a  Calvinist  as  any  Scot. 
His  bishops  shared  in  his  catholicity,  and  in  a  short  time 
a  dozen  Presbyterian  ministers  were  settled  in  parishes 
throughout  the  North,  serving  in  an  Episcopal  Church 
yet  suffered  to  retain  their  Presbyterian  convictions.  Of 
these  Edivard  Briu  was  the  first  in  order.  Driven 
from  the  parish  of  Drymen  in  1 613,  he  crossed  over 
and  settled  in  Broadisland,  under  Bishop  Echlin  of 
Down.  Following  him  came  a  goodly  band,  amongst 
whom  were  Robert  Blair,  professor  in  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity and  the  ablest  of  them  all ;  James  Hamilton, 
the  nephew  of  Lord  Claneboy,  founder  of  the  Dufferin 
family ;  Josias  Welsh,  a  grandson  of  John  Knox, 
whose  sermons  were  so  rousing  as  to  gain  for  him  the 
name  "cock  o'  the  conscience";  Robert  Cunningham., 
John  Livingstone,  and  others.  All  were  Presbyterians 
who  had  suffered  for  conscience'  sake,  and  soon  the  fruits 
of  their  labours  appeared.  The  questionable  reputation 
of  the  Ulster  colonists  passed  away,  and  they  became 
famed  for  their  God-fearing,  orderly  manner  of  life. 

2.  lyection  of  the  Presbyterians. — The  success 

of  the  Presbyterian  ministers  produced  a  change  in  the 
mind  of  the  Bishops.  To  their  dismay  they  saw  their 
parishes  fast  being  infected  with  Presbyterian  ways,  and, 
with  a  unanimity  shared  by  all  save  the  good  Arch- 
bishop, they  turned  on  the  Presbyters.  Echlin  led  the 
attack,  and  with  complete  success.  Ussher  tried  his  best 
to  stay  the  intolerance,  but  when  the  help  of  Laud,  the 
arch -persecutor  of  Presbytery,  was  invoked,  the  end  was 
not  doubtful.  The  Presbyterian  ministers  were  ejected 
from  their  parishes  and  driven  from  the  land.  Brice  died 
of  a  broken  heart.  The  others,  after  an  ineffectual  at- 
tempt to  reach  America  (1636),  returned  to  Scotland, 
where  they  did  good  service  to  the  Mother  Church.  On 
the  now  shepherdless  Presbyterians  of  Ulster  the  vials  of 
Laud's  and  Wentworth's  wrath  were  poured  out  freely, 
until,  by  persecution,  imprisonment,  and  fines,  Presby- 
terianism  was  silenced  and  apparently  dead. 


THE  CHURCH  IN  IRELAND  87 

3.  Ketum  of  Presbyterianism. — Five  years  after 

it  had  been  thrust  out  with  contumely,  Presbyterianism 
returned  to  bless  its  persecutors.  In  1641  there  oc- 
curred the  Ij-ish  Insurrection,  whose  awful  excesses  sent  a 
thrill  of  horror  pulsing  through  Britain.  Everywhere 
the  native  Irish  had  risen  and  massacred  the  Protestants 
with  unspeakable  tortures.  On  receipt  of  the  tidings, 
Presbyterian  Scotland  forgot  the  wrongs  she  had  herself 
received  at  the  hands  of  those  now  suffering,  and  with 
urgent  haste  despatched  to  their  relief  a  force  of  ten 
thousand  men  under  Major-General  Munro,  Landing 
at  Carrickfergus,  Munro  speedily  quelled  the  rebellion, 
but  to  thoroughly  quiet  the  country  a  more  lengthened 
stay  was  needful.  To  this  was  due  the  reintroduction 
of  Presbyterianism. 

With  each  regiment  had  been  sent  a  chaplain  ;  and 
on  comparative  quiet  being  secured  the  chaplains  were 
able  to  devote  some  time  to  the  spiritual  needs  of  the 
country.  Other  clergy  there  were  none.  The  Bishops 
had  fled  and  the  Episcopal  clergy  were  mostly  massacred, 
so  to  the  growth  of  Presbytery  there  was  now  no  let  or 
hindrance.  Immediately  the  old  Presbyterian  leanings  of 
the  colonists  showed  themselves  anew,  which  so  stimu- 
lated the  chaplains  that,  on  lofh/jine  1642,  a  Presbytery 
was  formed  at  Carrickfergus.  The  materials  were  already 
to  hand  in  the  Kirk -Session  which  existed  in  each 
regiment,  with  the  chaplain  for  moderator  and  officers 
for  elders.  In  combination  these  now  formed  the  First 
Presl'ytery  of  the  Irish  Church.  It  was  a  small  seed, 
which  soon  became  a  great  tree.  Applications  for 
ministers  poured  in  from  the  parishes,  and  through  the 
Presbytery  these  appeals  were  forwarded  to  the  Mother 
Church  in  Scotland.  She  did  what  she  could,  and  sent 
for  several  years  deputations  of  her  leading  ministers  to 
serve  for  three  months  at  a  time,  besides  despatching 
occasional  licentiates  of  her  own  to  settle  in  the  country. 
In  1660  there  were  80  congregations  throughout  Ulster, 
70  ministers,  5  presbyteries,  and  100,000  communicants 
— a  wonderful  growth  in  twenty  years  ! 


88  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

4.  A  Century  of  Trial. — With  the  return  of  the 
Stuart  kings  in  1660,  an  abrupt  check  was  given  to  the 
progress  of  the  Church,  and  an  era  of  persecution  in- 
augurated which  lasted  for  more  than  a  century.  This 
was  the  unhappy  result  of  the  steady  hostility  of  the 
Episcopal  party.  In  numbers  the  Episcopalians  were 
far  inferior  to  the  Presbyterians,  but  their  social  position 
was  higher  :  their  bishops  mustered  strong  in  the  Irish 
House  of  Lords,  and  the  power  thus  given  them  in  the 
making  of  laws  they  freely  used  for  the  advancement  of 
their  Church.  No  sooner  had  Charles  II.  ascended  the 
throne  than  the  loyalty  of  his  Irish  Presbyterian  subjects 
was  all  forgotten.  Episcopacy  was  re-established,  High 
Church  bishops  were  sent  from  England  to  occupy  the 
vacant  sees,  and  a  systematic  anti  -  Presbyterian  cam- 
paign began.  A  troop  of  dragoons  having  dispersed  the 
Synod  at  Ballymena,  the  alternative  of  conformity  or 
ejection  was  offered  to  all  the  Presbyterian  ministers. 
Of  the  seventy,  sixty-one  chose  ejection  and  went  out 
from  Church  and  home.  With  characteristic  Scottish 
fidelity  the  people  followed  their  pastors,  and  conventicles 
eveiywhere  sprang  up  ;  but  only  to  be  suppressed.  A 
fine  of  ;^ioo  was  the  penalty  imposed  on  any  Presby- 
terian minister  found  administering  the  communion,  and 
so  grievous  was  the  crime  of  being  in  Presbyterian 
orders,  that  for  six  years  four  Presbyterian  ministers 
were  confined  in  prison  at  Lifford,  through  the  efforts  of 
Bishop  Leslie  of  Raphoe.  That  the  English  Govern- 
ment lent  its  countenance  to  such  injustice  was  partly 
due  to  the  misrepresentations  of  the  Bishops,  who 
pictured  the  Presbyterians  as  rebellious  and  disloyal. 
How  false  were  such  reports  was  shown  at  the  heroic 
defence  of  Derry,  where,  as  Froude  says,  the  Presby- 
terians "won  immortal  honour  for  themselves,  and  flung 
over  the  wretched  annals  of  their  adopted  countiy  a 
solitary  gleam  of  true  glory." 

By  the'  impartial  William  of  Orange  this  was  duly 
noted,  and  so  long  as  he  lived  the  Presbyterian  Church 
was  free  from  any  "legal  "  persecution.      A  small  grant 


THE  CHURCH  IN  IRELAND  89 

to  the  ministers  of  ^"600,  passerl  by  Charles  II.  when  in 
a  tolerant  mood  but  irregularly  paid,  was  now  doubled 
in  amount,  and  thus  was  be<;un  the  Regium  Doniim^ 
which  till  1869  continued  to  be  an  annual  acknowledg- 
ment by  the  State  of  the  semi -established  position 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  Under  these  more  favour- 
able conditions  Presbyterianism  rapidly  shot  forward, 
until  in  1702,  the  year  of  King  William's  death,  there 
were  9  Presbyteries,  3  sub  -  Synods,  and  I  General 
Annual  Synod. 

5.  The  Test  Act.— The  death  of  William  and  the 
accession  of  Queen  Anne  left  the  Episcopal  party  once 
more  free  to  work  its  will,  and  in  1704  it  succeeded  in 
carrying  an  Act  most  hurtful  to  Presbyterianism.  This 
was  the  Test  Act^  according  to  which  every  person 
holding  office  under  the  Crown  was  obliged  to  partake 
of  the  communion  in  an  Episcopal  church  within  three 
months  after  entering  on  office.  Failure  so  to  do  was 
followed  by  deprivation  of  office.  Under  this  infamous 
enactment  Presbyterians  were  declared  unfit  to  serve  the 
State,  save  by  disloyalty  to  their  Church.  How  it  told 
on  the  cause  throughout  the  North  may  be  judged  by 
the  cases  of  Derry  and  Belfast  In  Derry  10  out 
of  12  aldermen  and  14  out  of  24  burgesses  lost 
their  offices,  while  in  Belfast  9  out  of  13  shared 
the  same  fate  —  and  all  for  the  crime  of  being  loyal 
Presbyterians.  Similar  expulsions  taking  place  else- 
where, it  was  at  last  borne  home  to  the  minds  of  the 
people  that  Ireland  was  no  home  for  Presbytery.  Across 
the  Atlantic  America  beckoned  invitingly,  and  with 
hearts  longing  for  freedom  to  worship  God,  the  great 
Exodus  of  Ulster  PresbyteHans  set  in.  Already  many 
had  been  driven  there  by  earlier  persecutions,  and  had 
helped  to  lay  the  foundation  of  American  Presbyterian- 
ism, but  from  1 729  onwards  a  steady  stream  of  emigrants 
began  to  flow,  amounting  to  12,000  annually,  and  con- 
tinued with  like  fulness  for  many  years.  To  America 
they  were  a  priceless  gain,  to  Ireland  an  irreparable 
loss.     For  the  removal  of  the  obnoxious  Act  the  Pres- 


90  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

byterians  had  to  wait  for  eighty  years,  when  the  rise  of 
the  Volunteer  Movement  in  1780  brought  the  Govern- 
ment to  its  senses,  and  extorted  the  canceUing  of  an 
enactment  which  had  declared  Presbyterians,  "the  right 
arm  of  Irish  Protestantism,  to  be  unfit  to  hold  office, 
civil  or  military,  above  the  rank  of  a  parish  constable  " 
(Froude).  By  repeated  increase  of  the  Regiu??i  Dotitim^ 
ta,rdy  amends  for  past  neglect  were  made,  and  at  the 
close  of  the  century  the  Irish  Presbyterian  Church, 
unprivileged  but  at  last  unhindered,  had  a  free  path 
before  her. 

6.  Doctrinal  Troubles. — The  century,  so  full  of 

external  trials,  was  also  marked  by  serious  internal 
doctrinal  controversies,  the  result  in  a  great  measure  of 
the  closeness  of  touch  which  subsisted  between  Scottish 
and  Irish  Presbyterianism.  Geographical  proximity  and 
their  near  relationship  has  always  made  this  inevitable,  but 
in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  the  bond  was 
tightened  by  the  prevalent  practice  of  the  Irish  Presby- 
terian ministers  receiving  their  training  at  Scottish 
Universities,  Glasgow  being  the  favourite  alma  jnaUr. 
By  their  means  ideas  prevalent  in  Scotland  passed  over 
to  the  sister  isle,  and  naturally  enough  the  Moderatism 
of  the  eighteenth  century  was  thus  transmitted.  To  the 
reception  it  met  with  in  Ireland  and  the  modifications  it 
there  underwent  were  mainly  due  the  two  doctrinal 
controversies  of  the  Church. 

(i)  The  New  Light  movement,  which  originated  in 
1 7 19,  was  a  revolt  on  the  part  of  some  of  the  ministers 
against  creed  subscription.  Led  by  the  Rev.  John 
Abertiethy  of  Antrim,  they  maintained  that  sincerity  of 
belief  justified  lack  of  orthodoxy,  and  denied  the 
Church's  right  to  impose  a  creed  upon  her  ministers. 
The  Church  recognised  the  earnestness  and  worth  of 
several  of  the  leaders  of  the  movement,  and  with  rare 
patience  sought  to  effect  a  compromise.  Adopting  a 
policy  of  segregation,  she  isolated  the  -'New  Lights"  in 
a  Presbytery  by  themselves,  the  Presbytery  of  Antrim. 
But    the    leaven    spread,    and    in    1726    the    Synod    of 


THE  CHURCH  IN  IRELAND  91 

Dung[annon  found  it  necessary  to  completely  separate 
the  Presbytery  from  the  Church.  Even  this  failed  to 
check  the  growing  laxity  of  doctrine,  and  in  1 74 1  there 
resulted  a  consequence  very  important  to  Irish  Presby- 
terianism.  This  was  the  entrance  into  Ulster  of 
representatives  of  the  Secession  Church  of  Scotland.  No 
bias  we  may  have  for  or  against  this  Church's  work  in 
Scotland  can  blind  us  to  the  great  service  it  rendered  to 
Ireland.  It  saved  Irish  Presbyterianism  from  drift- 
ing into  that  Unitarianism  which  at  the  same  period 
annihilated  the  old  Presbyterianism  of  England.  The 
Rev.  Isaac  Patton  of  Lylehill  was  the  first  Seceder 
minister,  and  in  1750,  nine  years  after  his  arrival,  the 
first  Associate  Presbytery  was  held  at  Arhilly,  near 
Newtonlimavady.  From  this  date,  though  much  opposed 
by  the  Church  of  Ulster,  and  greatly  injured  by  its  own 
folly  in  taking  up  the  quarrels  of  the  Scots  Seceders  and 
splitting  into  Burgher  and  Anti- Burgher,  the  Seceder 
Church  progressed  with  amazing  rapidity. 

(2)  The  Arian  Controversy,  which  marked  the  earlier 
part  of  the  present  centuiy,  was  another  instance  of  the 
responsiveness  of  Ulster  to  Scottish  movements.  The 
rising  Evangelicalism  of  the  Mother  Church  infected 
the  daughter,  and  as  the  Evangelical  spirit  spread,  zeal 
for  purity  of  doctrine  returned.  It  was  time.  So  in- 
different had  the  Synod  grown  as  to  the  orthodoxy  of 
its  ministers,  that  Arianism  was  common  amongst  them, 
and  in  more  than  one  instance  had  been  openly  professed 
without  rebuke.  The  majority,  however,  though  in- 
different, were  orthodox,  as  were  also  the  people. 
What  was  needed  was  a  leader,  strong,  earnest,  and 
determined,  and  such  a  man  was  found  in  Henry  Cooke, 
minister  of  Killyleagh,  one  of  the  greatest  leaders  the 
Irish  Church  has  had.  Perceiving  the  canker  that  was 
eating  the  life  out  of  the  Church,  he  gave  himself  to  the 
work  of  destroying  it.  It  was  no  easy  task.  The 
apathy  of  the  Church  had  to  be  overcome,  and  able 
opponents  had  to  be  refuted.  But  in  the  end  the 
battle  was  won.      At  Lurgan,  in  1829,  after  a  struggle 


92  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

of  ten  years,  the  Synod  of  Ulster  declared  it  to  be  in- 
competent for  any  one  holding  Arian  views  to  occupy 
an  office  in  the  Church.  Seventeen  ministers  resigned 
their  charges — a  small  number  when  one  considers  the 
prolonged  and  excited  controversy  which  had  taken 
place. 

7.  Union  with  the  Secession  Synod. — The  vin- 
dication of  the  Church's  orthodoxy  was  followed,  in 
1834,  by  an  enforcement  of  unqualified  subscription  to 
the  Confession  of  Faith  on  all  her  office-bearers — a  step 
which  brought  the  Synod  of  Ulster  in  all  essentials  into 
perfect  harmony  with  the  Secession  Syjiod.  The  natural 
and  seemly  consequence  was  reached  when,  on  loth  July 
1840,  the  two  Presbyterian  Synods,  after  a  separate 
existence  of  one  hundred  years,  united  their  forces  and 
formed  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Chtirch 
in  Ireland.  From  the  Secession  side  came  141  con- 
gregations, and  from  the  Synod  of  Ulster  292.  Seldom 
has  an  ecclesiastical  union  been  so  heartily  consum- 
mated, and  never  with  happier  results.  The  isolated 
congregations  in  the  South  and  East  of  Ireland,  which 
formed  the  Synod  of  Munster,  in  turn  caught  the  con- 
tagion, and  when  in  1854  they  too  united  with  the 
strong  Church  of  the  North,  the  Irish  Presbyterian 
Church  had  gained  at  last  the  recognised  position,  and 
much  of  the  power  in  the  land,  which  but  for  oppression 
should  have  been  hers  two  centuries  before. 

8.  Recent  Progress. — From  that  date  the  record 
of  the  Church  has  been  one  of  rapid  growth  and  steady 
development,  alike  in  membership,  in  wealth,  and  in  all 
good  works.  No  sooner  was  the  Union  of  1840  accom- 
plished than  Foreign  Missioji  work  was  taken  up,  India 
being  the  field  first  chosen.  A  mission  to  the  Jews  was 
added  later,  and  under  the  devoted  leadership  of  the  late 
Dr.  Fleming  Stevenson  the  foreign  work  was  steadily 
developed.  But  it  has  been  by  her  labours  in  the  Hofue 
country  that  the  Irish  Church  has  gained  her  brightest 
laurels.  No  longer  is  it  necessary  for  her  students  to 
proceed  to  Scotland  for  their  training.    The  Magee  College 


THE  CHURCH  IN  IRELAND  93 

at  Londonderry,  the  product  of  a  princely  legacy  from 
the  widow  of  a  minister  of  the  Church,  and  the  Assembly s 
College  at  Belfast,  supply  a  training  as  excellent  as 
Scotland  can  bestow.  The  Orphan  Society^  one  of  the 
many  agencies  originated  and  successfully  worked  by 
the  late  Dr.  Johnston,  cares  for  3000  orphan  children, 
at  an  annual  cost  of  ;[^i 0,000.  The  Connanght  Irish 
Schools,  organised  by  the  late  Dr.  Edgar,  have  educated 
40,000  children  of  the  poor,  and  the  Irish  Mission 
of  Dr.  Hamilton  Magee  strives  effectually  to  dissemi- 
nate Protestant  truth  throughout  the  land.  To  the 
general  progress  a  rude  shock  was  given  in  1869, 
when,  along  with  the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish 
Episcopal  Church,  there  took  place  the  abolition  of  the 
Presbyterian  Regium  Donum.  But  no  serious  injury 
was  done.  The  commutation  of  life  interests  resulted 
in  a  capital  fund  of  £^'^1 -il ZS^  which  yields  a  yearly 
interest  of  ;^25,ooo.  The  Regium  Domim  had 
amounted  yearly  to  ;i(^39,ooo,  but  the  liberality  of  the 
Church  has  more  than  compensated  for  its  withdrawal, 
the  SiistentcUion  Fund,  voluntarily  raised,  bringing  the 
income  of  the  Ciiurch,  for  the  payment  of  sustentation,  up 
to  ;[^50,ooo.  With  this  sum  the  Church  maintains  a 
staff  of  645  ministers,  whose  ministry  reaches  nearly 
half  a  million  souls.  In  her  membership  she  almost 
equals  the  Episcopal  Church,  but  in  Ulster,  the  Presby- 
terian stronghold,  she  far  exceeds  it,  and  has  been  the 
main  instrument  in  imparting  to  that  northern  province 
the  religious  tone  which  specially  characterises  it. 

9.  Characteristic  Features. — As  contrasted  with 

the  present-day  Presbyterianism  of  Scotland,  that  of 
Ireland  is  distinguished  by  its  thorough  -  going  con- 
servatism. The  forward  movements  in  Theology  and 
Church  Services,  which  in  the  Mother  Church  are  ac- 
complished facts,  are  in  Ireland  just  beginning.  In- 
strumental music  in  churches  is  being  slowly  introduced, 
and  it  was  not  until  1895  ^^^^  ^^  Assembly  gave  per- 
mission to  congregations  to  add  a  Hymnal  to  their 
Psalm-book. 


94  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Two  causes  have  contributed  to  this  peculiarity.  One 
has  been  the  strong  infusion  of  conservatism  in  theology 
and  practice  which  the  Church  received  by  uniting  with 
the  Secession  Synod  in  1840.  But  almost  equally 
important  has  been  the  ceasing  of  the  practice  of  educa- 
ting her  ministers  in  Scotland.  Contact  with  Scottish 
ways  and  thought  has  been  thereby  avoided  (save  in  the 
case  of  the  few  students  who  still  voluntarily  cross  the 
channel),  and  the  peculiarities  of  the  Church  preserved. 
But  though  some  sweetness  and  light  may  have  thereby 
been  forfeited,  the  rugged  strength  which  has  been  main- 
tained has  been  of  far  greater  consequence.  As  a  stand- 
ing protest  against  Romanism,  and  a  bracing  influence 
on  Irish  Anglicanism,  which  through  its  contact  with 
Presbyterianism  has  hitherto  refrained  from  joining  in 
the  High  Church  Movement,  the  Irish  Presbyterian 
Church  is  a  strong  tower  to  the  Protestant  cause,  and 
as  such  merits  and  receives  the  admiration  of  every  true 
Presbyterian. 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND    95 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH   IN   ENGLAND  AND  WALES 

A.    The  Presbyterian  Church  of  England 

"C*NGLISH  Presbyterianism  in  its  present  organised 
■'-'  form  is  of  recent  origin.  Little  connection  exists 
between  it  and  the  Presbyterianism  which  in  the  seven- 
teenth centuiy  was  so  strongly  represented  in  the  Church 
of  England  as  to  have  a  fair  prospect  of  becoming 
the  ecclesiastical  polity  of  the  nation.  The  Act  of 
Utiiformity,  which  in  1662  drove  2000  English  clergy 
from  their  livings,  ended  that  hope,  and  under  the 
chilling  influences  of  civil  persecution,  social  ostracism, 
and  spiritual  infidelity,  Presbyterianism  in  the  eighteenth 
century  drooped  and  all  but  died.  Isolated  congre- 
gations remained  throughout  the  country  which  were 
Presbyterian  in  name,  but  with  a  few  bright  exceptions 
they  had  adopted  the  Unitarian  creed  and  the  Con- 
gregational mode  of  government. 

I.  Revival  of  Presbyterianism.— It  was  not  till 

the  beginning  of  the  present  century  that  the  dry  bones 
began  again  to  live.  Increased  Scottish  immigration 
then  resulted  in  the  formation  of  not  a  few  new  Presby- 
terian congregations,  while  at  the  same  period  the  general 
spread  of  Evangelical  principles  in  all  the  Churches 
recalled  some  of  the  lapsed  Presbyterian  communities  to 
their  earlier  and  purer  faith,  and  revived  the  hearts  of 
those  who  had  continued  faithful.  Presbyteries  were 
formed,  and  in  1836  these  united  to  form  The  Presby- 
terian Synod  of  England,  in  connect  iott  with  the  Church  of 
Scotland.  Unfortunately  for  the  young  Church,  the  great 
Secession  of  '43  came  on  apace,  and,  deeming  it  their 


96  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

duty  to  take  sides,  the  English  Presbyterians  in  1844 
severed  their  connection  with  the  National  Scottish 
Church,  and  avowed  hearty  sympathy  with  the  Free 
Church.  A  minority  remained  loyal,  and  constitute  to- 
day the  Synod  of  the  Scottish  Church  in  England,  which 
numbers  14  ministers  and  3600  communicants. 

2.  Union. — The  severance  from  the  Scottish  Estab- 
lishment, regrettable  though  it  was,  opened  the  way  to 
a  union  with  the  numerous  Presbyterian  congregations 
throughout  England,  in  connection  with  the  Scottish 
United  Presbyterian  Church  ;  and  at  Liverpool  in  1S76, 
by  the  consent  of  the  U.P.  Synod,  this  union  was 
accomplished.  Ninety -eight  English  congregations  of 
the  Synod  joined  the  English  Presbyterian  Church  and 
formed  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  England  of  to-day. 
In  the  twenty  years  that  have  passed  since  then  the 
Church  has  slowly  but  steadily  developed  both  in  home 
and  foreign  work.  Her  communicants  have  increased 
from  51,013  to  68,997,  and  are  dispersed  among  295 
congregations,  while  an  annual  income  of  ^230,000  is 
eloquent  testimony  to  the  excellence  of  organisation  and 
heartiness  of  spirit  pervading  the  Church.  But  of  all 
the  signs  which  point  to  increasing  progress,  none  is 
more  hopeful  than  the  attention  which  the  Church  is 
bestowing  on  the  training  of  her  own  ministry.  It  has 
long  been  a  complaint  that  Scottish  ministers  filled  too 
many  of  her  pulpits,  and  thereby  gave  English  Presby- 
terianism  the  name  and  character  of  an  exotic  ;  but  by 
her  Theological  College,  with  its  well-known  staff — 
soon  apparently  to  be  transferred  from  London  to 
Cambridge — she  is  doing  her  utmost  to  identify  herself 
thoroughly  with  England  and  the  English  people. 

B.    The  Presbyterian  Church  of  Wales 

I.  Origin. — Alone  of  all  the  Presbyterian  Churches 
of  Britain,  that  of  Wales  owes  nothing  to  Scotland*. 
Both  in  her  origin  and  development  she  is  peculiarly 
Welsh.      As   an   organised  Church    she   is   not   yet   a 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  OF  WALES      97 

century  old,  but  the  movement  of  which  she  was  the 
outcome  dates  back  to  1735,  when  the  Church  in  Wales, 
which  fully  shared  in  the  deadness  of  the  period,  was 
roused  from  her  apathy  by  the  voice  of  an  earnest  young 
preacher,  Howell  Harris  of  Trevecca,  in  Brecknockshire. 
Harris  was  a  layman  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  for 
a  layman  to  presume  to  preach  was  then  a  strange  heresy. 
To  his  friends  he  seemed  beside  himself,  and  a  hasty 
despatch  to  Oxford  was  devised  as  a  cure,  but  with  no 
success.  Returning  to  Trevecca,  he  resumed  his  preach- 
ing, with  the  result  that  a  widespread  revival  took  place 
over  South  Wales.  Other  like-minded  apostles  caught 
the  flame  :  Daniel  Rowlands,  curate  of  Llangeitho,  in 
the  county  of  Cardigan  ;  and  Howell  Davies,  curate  of 
Llysyfran,  in  Pembrokeshire.  Whitefield,  the  great 
preacher  who  was  then  rousing  England  with  his 
appeals,  lent  his  aid  to  the  movement,  and,  as  one  after 
another  of  the  evangelically -disposed  clergy  of  Wales 
avowed  their  sympathy,  rapid  headway  was  made.  No 
breach  was  made  with  the  Church  of  England,  nor  was  any 
such  desired.  Like  the  Wesleyan  movement  in  England, 
so  was  this  of  Wales  a  revival  within  the  Church,  and  led 
by  men  devoted  to  the  Church,  The  duty  of  receiving 
communion  at  the  hands  of  Episcopally-ordained  clergy- 
men was  distinctly  enforced.  Societies  in  the  various 
parishes  were,  indeed,  formed  by  those  who  sympathised 
with  the  movement,  but  they  were  spiritual,  as  contrasted 
with  ecclesiastical,  in  their  aims — for  the  growth  in 
grace  of  the  members,  not  for  the  forming  of  a  new 
organisation.  Similar  movements  arising  in  the  Church 
to-day  are  welcomed  as  additional  forces  for  good,  but 
on  the  English  Church  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  fatal 
blindness  rested,  and  both  in  England  and  in  Wales  the 
apostles  of  the  new  life  were  persistently  opposed.  Fines 
and  imprisonment  were  the  penalties  for  frequenting 
conventicles  ;  stoning  and  maltreating  the  conventiclers 
was  winked  at  by  the  authorities  ;  and  thus  slowly  but 
surely  the  links  of  attachment  to  the  Church  of  England 
were  snapped  asunder. 


98  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

2.  Formation  of  the  Cliurch.  — In  1811  the  de- 
cisive step  was  taken.  An  unusually  rapid  growth  of 
the  "  Societies  "  in  the  opening  year  of  the  century  had 
revealed  the  great  need  of  evangelical  clergy  in  the 
Principality.  The  Bishops  either  would  not  or  could 
not  help  in  supplying  the  need,  and  thus  by  the  logic  of 
circumstances  the  leaders  of  the  movement  were  forced 
back  to  the  Scriptural  method  of  Ordination  by  Presbyters. 
Under  the  guidance  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Charles  of  Bala, 
who  had  been  driven  from  the  Establishment  because  of 
his  pronounced  Evangelicalism,  the  decisive  resolution 
was  adopted,  and  in  i8ii  there  were  ordained,  by  the 
laying  on  of  the  hands  of  the  Presbyters,  eight  workers 
at  Bala  and  thirteen  at  Llandilo.  The  spiritual  move- 
ment within  the  Church  had  become  itself  a  Church. 
The  Rubicon  once  passed,  the  Calvinistic  Methodist 
Connection,  as  the  new  organisation  was  termed,  settled 
down  to  steady  work.  At  first  it  was  little  more  than  a 
union  of  evangelical  Christians  with  no  ecclesiastical 
status,  but  when  it  proceeded  to  formulate  a  creed  and 
constitution  it  was  found  that  they  were  distinctly  Calvin- 
istic and  Presbyterian.  The  *'  Societies  "  easily  shaded 
off  into  Presbytei'ies,  the  associations  of  societies  into 
two  Synodsy  and  in  1864  the  final  touch  was  given 
by  the  formation  of  a  General  Assembly  for  all  Wales. 
The  perfecting  of  the  constitution  has  been  accompanied 
by  a  steady  development  of  all  the  apparatus  which 
ministers  to  a  Church's  life  and  testifies  to  a  Church's 
activity.  Two  colleges  for  the  training  of  the  ministry 
have  been  working  for  half  a  century  in  Bala  and  Tre- 
vecca,  while  Home  Mission  work  and  Foreign  Missions 
in  Assam  have  been  steadily  maintained. 

3.  Present  Position.  —  As  contrasted  with  the 

Established  Church,  the  strength  of  the  Welsh  Presby- 
terian Church  has  lain  in  her  peculiarly  national  character. 
Welsh  in  her  origin,  she  has  remained  Welsh  throughout 
her  history.  Her  ministers  are  Welshmen  bom  and 
bred,  sons  of  the  people,  speaking  their  tongue  and 
knowing  their  ways.      It  is  little  wonder  that,  with  these 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  OF  WALES      99 

strong  claims  on  the  national  affection,  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Wales  has  made  such  marvellous  progress. 
Her  adherents,  as  reported  to  the  General  Assembly  in 
1895,  number  306,669,  while  her  total  contributions  of 
;^230,ooo  for  the  year  point  to  a  vigorous  life  and  a 
hopeful  future.  Hitherto  she  has  lived  in  isolation  from 
the  other  Presbyterian  Churches  of  Britain,  but  of  late 
years  there  have  been  signs  of  a  longing  for  closer 
fellowship  with  the  Sister  Church  in  England.  The 
holding  of  the  Welsh  General  Assembly  in  London  in 
1895  may  perhaps  be  taken  as  evidence  that  a  federa- 
tion, if  not  a  union,  of  the  Churches  is  one  of  the  possi- 
bilities of  the  future. 


100  777^  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
OF  AMERICA 

TO  pass  from  the  Presbyterianism  of  Europe  to  that 
of  America  and  the  Colonies  is  to  enter  on  the  third 
stage  in  the  extension  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  A 
changed  atmosphere  surrounds  us.  New  circumstances 
create  new  difficulties  and  result  in  new  developments. 
No  longer  do  we  meet  with  thrilling  records  of  martyr- 
doms for  the  faith  or  bloody  battles  for  religious  freedom. 
In  their  place  we  find  accounts,  less  stirring  but  no  less 
important,  of  the  slow  building  up  of  congregations  in 
the  midst  of  poverty,  and  the  gradual  formation  of  a 
Constitution,  in  the  face  of  petty  and  harassing,  but  not 
deadly,  opposition.  Poetry  has  given  place  to  prose. 
Corresponding  with  this  change  is  the  change  in  the  na- 
ture of  the  victory.  It  is  now  the  victory  of  a  great 
principle  as  contrasted  with  the  triumphs  of  great  leaders. 
The  merits  of  Presbyterianism,  rather  than  the  strong 
personality  of  prominent  Presbyters,  win  the  day.  Not 
so  was  it  on  the  Continent,  neither  was  it  so  in  Scotland. 
In  a  very  real  sense  Calvin,  Knox,  and  Melville  were 
the  makers  of  the  Presbyterian  churches  there.  But  in 
the  trans-oceanic  development,  though  great  leaders  have 
not  been  wanting,  their  name  and  fame  has  been  over- 
shadowed by  the  name  and  fame  of  the  churches  they 
helped  to  establish. 

A  third  notable  feature  in  this  last  phase  of  Presby- 
terian expansion  is  a  certain  many-sidedness  growing 
out  of  its  affiliations  with  almost  every  centre  of  Calvin- 
istic  reform  in  Europe.  Though  the  largest  church 
bearing  the   Presbyterian  name  is  of    Scottish   origin, 


THE   UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      loi 

and  has  followed  Scottish  ideas  and  patterns,  Holland, 
France,  and  Germany  have  contributed  large  contingents 
both  of  numbers  and  formative  influences.  When  the 
time  comes  for  the  union  of  its  different  branches, 
American  Presbyterianism  will  incorporate  the  fruits 
of  the  thought  and  feeling  of  many  peoples  and  lands. 

There  are  at  present  in  the  United  States  of  America 
thirteen  organisations  of  the  Presbyterian  and  Reformed 
order  holding  to  the  Calvinistic  system  of  doctrine.  They 
may  be  divided  into  three  general  classes :  first,  those 
which  sprang  into  existence  independently  on  American 
soil ;  second,  those  that  were  planted  as  branches  of  the 
Reformed  Churches  of  the  Continent,  and  continued  for 
some  time  in  organic  connection  with  these  churches  ; 
and,  third,  those  which  were  organised  as  branches  of 
the  Scottish  churches,  and  were  long  in  affiliation  with 
their  Scottish  parent  churches. 

Of  these  the  first  to  enter  the  continent  in  order  of 
time  was  the  Dutch  Reformed.  Next  came  the  Scotch 
and  Scotch-Irish  Presbyterian  population,  which,  com- 
bining with  the  Presbyterian  element  within  Enghsh 
Puritanism  that  had  found  its  way  into  New  England, 
sprang  into  the  strictly  so-called  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  United  States  of  America.  Following,  after  an  in- 
terval of  half  a  century,  came  the  German  Reformed 
Church,  and  contemporaneously  with  this  the  represen- 
tatives of  the  dissenting  bodies  of  Scotland  obtained  a 
foothold,  and  later  amalgamated  in  the  United  Presby- 
terian Assembly.  In  the  order  of  influence  and  strength, 
the  first  place  is  conceded  by  all  to  that  church  which  is 
known  as  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States 
of  America.  With  this,  therefore,  we  shall  begin  our 
more  particular  account  of  these  bodies. 

I.  The  Presbyterian   Church   in  the    United 
States  of  America 

I-  Introduction     of    Presbyterianism     into 

America. — if  we  take  the  period  between  the  years 


102  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

1492  and  1600  to  constitute  the  age  of  exploration  in 
America,  and  the  period  between  1600  and  1776  to  con- 
stitute the  age  of  colonisation,  it  will  be  clear  that  this 
latter  period  begins  with  the  introduction  of  English 
Episcopacy  into  the  continent.  The  Cavaliers  were 
Established  Church  men,  and  they  settled  the  Virginia 
colony  as  early  as  1607.  Next  to  Episcopacy  came  In- 
dependency, after  an  interval  of  about  fifteen  years 
(1620).  Yet  both  the  Episcopalian  Cavaliers  and  the 
Independent  Puritans  brought  over  complete  church 
organisations  from  across  the  waters  ;  but  to  the  Presby- 
terians of  Holland  belongs  the  honour  of  having  first 
organised  a  Christian  church  on  American  soil.  This 
memorable  event  took  place  in  New  Amsterdam  in  1628, 
under  the  leadership  of  Jonas  Michaelius.  But  not  even 
this  church  was  destined  to  remain  independent  of  Euro- 
pean connections  very  long.  It  was  put  into  organic 
affiliation  with  the  Synod  of  North  Holland.  To  the 
Scotch  and  Scotch-Irish  was  to  come  the  credit  of  plant- 
ing and  maintaining  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  America. 
And  yet  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  a  certain  kind  and 
amount  of  preparation  had  been  made  for  this  work  by 
the  English  Puritans,  who  settled  New  England  be- 
tween 1625  and  1650.  There  were  many  Presbyterians 
among  these,  and  though  in  the  main  they  were  won 
over  to  Independency,  they  did  not  fail  to  leave  their 
mark  on  the  Congregationalism  of  the  succeeding  period. 
Some  of  them,  too,  successfully  resisted  the  influence  of 
Independency  and  managed  to  establish  churches  in 
Connecticut  and  Long  Island  upon  a  distinctively  Pres- 
byterian basis.  That  they  did  not  achieve  the  organisa- 
tion of  a  general  Presbyterian  Church,  as  distinguished 
from  mere  Presbyterian  congregations,  was  due  to  the 
absence,  on  the  one  hand,  of  a  large  number  of  colonists 
who  decidedly  preferred  the  Presbyterian  form,  and  on 
the  other  of  an  aggressive  organising  mind  to  bring  to- 
gether and  make  the  most  of  the  materials  at  hand.  It 
was  from  Scotland  and  the  north  of  Ireland  that  these 
two  requisites  were  introduced. 


THE   UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      103 

2.  Emigration  from  Scotland  and  Ireland.— 

To  these  two  Presbyterian  centres  the  return  of  the 
Stuarts,  in  1660,  had  brought  persecution,  and  large 
numbers  of  their  residents  had  to  seek  freedom  to  wor- 
ship God  by  crossing  the  Atlantic.  In  Scotland  the 
authorities  were  so  glad  to  get  rid  of  their  stubborn  sub- 
jects that  they  aided  their  departure,  and  from  1660  to 
1688  a  steady  stream  of  emigration  flowed  westward; 
not  in  twos  and  threes,  but  in  compact  bands  of  hundreds 
they  went ;  in  some  cases  proprietors  were  accompanied 
by  their  tenants,  in  others  ministers  with  their  flocks. 
And  yet  this  emigration  did  not  reach  a  definite  and 
limited  spot  on  the  western  side  of  the  Atlantic.  It  was 
not  an  insignificant  emigration,  indeed,  either  in  the 
number  of  emigrants  it  brought  in,  or  in  the  strength 
and  vigour  of  its  influence;  but,  unlike  the  Puritan, 
Cavalier,  and  Quaker  emigrations,  which  kept  together, 
the  Scotch-Irish  scattered  and  covered  a  vast  area  of 
territory.  It  followed  in  the  main  a  southwesterly  direc- 
tion from  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware  into  Maryland, 
Western  Virginia,  Tennessee,  and  Kentucky.  In  the 
long  run  the  total  number  of  emigrants  and  their 
descendants  from  Ulster  far  outnumbered  their  kinsmen 
who  stayed  at  home.  With  this  stream,  in  the  course  of 
time,  the  New  England  Presbyterian  element  naturally 
united.  Men  like  Francis  Doughty  and  Richard  Denton, 
who,  to  maintain  their  Presbyterianism,  had  moved  into 
the  more  congenial  atmosphere  of  the  Dutch  settlements 
on  Long  Island  and  New  Netherlands,  naturally  found 
themselves  ecclesiastically  in  their  own  element  among 
the  Scotch  and  Scotch-Irish.  There  were  also  men  like 
Matthew  Hill,  an  English  Presbyterian,  who  took  charge 
of  a  congregation  in  Maryland  about  1670.  Thus,  toward 
the  closing  years  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  Presby- 
terian element  grew  strong  enough  to  suggest  the  feasi- 
bility of  organisation.  In  1682  William  Traill,  and  in 
1683  Francis  Makemie,  came  to  minister  to  the  congre- 
gations of  Scotch-Irish  origin  scattered  through  Mary- 
land and  Delaware. 


I04  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

3-  Formation  of  the  First  Presbytery.— Francis 

Makemie,  who  was  destined  to  become  the  founder  of 
the  great  American  Presbyterian  Church,  was  a  graduate 
of  Glasgow  University,  and  a  licentiate  of  the  Presbytery 
of  Laggan.  He  was  put  by  that  Presbytery  at  the  head 
of  a  company  of  emigrants  to  America.  On  his  arrival 
he  gave  himself  to  the  work  of  an  evangelist,  engaging 
at  the  same  time  in  such  secular  employments  as  brought 
him  an  ample  support  and  built  him  a  comfortable  estate. 
His  travels  soon  made  him  acquainted  with  the  true  ex- 
tent and  spread  of  Presbyterianism.  His  keen  insight 
revealed  to  him  the  necessity  of  organisation,  while  the 
intolerance  of  the  Episcopalians,  which  he  personally 
experienced  shortly  after  his  arrival, — being  fined  and 
imprisoned  in  New  York  for  preaching  the  gospel, — only 
helped  to  whet  his  sense  of  the  need  of  combination  of 
forces  on  the  part  of  Presbyterians.  In  1699  he  was 
called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  church  at  Snow  Hill,  Md. 
From  this  position  he  bent  his  energies  to  the  work  of 
bringing  together  his  brethren  of  the  same  faith ;  and  in 
consequence  of  his  energetic  efforts  these  churches  were 
organised  into  a  Presbytery  in  Philadelphia  in  1705  or 
1706  (the  exact  date  remains  doubtful,  owing  to  the  loss 
of  the  first  page  of  the  records).  The  effect  of  organi- 
sation soon  became  apparent ;  progress  was  phenomenally 
rapid.  Presbyterians  from  Scotland  and  Ireland,  as  they 
came  into  the  New  World,  were  met  by  a  living  church. 
Instead  of  being  scattered  and  absorbed  by  the  Indepen- 
dents, or  other  Christian  bodies,  they  joined  the  congre- 
gations of  their  own  order.  With  some  aid  from  the 
Synod  of  Glasgow,  and  with  the  sympathy  of  Principal 
Stirling  of  the  University  of  Glasgow,  the  colonial  church 
made  tremendous  strides  forward. 

4.  The  Synod  of  Philadelphia. -The  Presbytery 
organised  in  1705  or  1706  never  calls  itself  by  a  local 
name.  It  has  been  rightly  suggested  that  it  was  a 
General  Presbytery,  but  whether  general  or  local,  it 
blossomed  in  171 6  into  four  Presbyteries,  and,  carrying 
out  the  Presbyterian  idea,  a  higher  court  was  established, 


THE   UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      105 

to  unify  these  four,  in  the  Synod  of  Philadelphia.  At  its 
organisation  the  Synod  was  made  up  of  all  the  ministers, 
with  one  elder  from  each  church.  In  1724  it  was  found 
necessary  to  substitute  the  principle  of  delegation  for  this 
arrangement.  It  was  ordered  that  each  Presbytery 
should  designate  half  its  membership  to  represent  it  at 
the  session  of  the  Synod  for  two  successive  years,  while 
the  third  year  all  should  attend ;  but  experience  proved 
this  arrangement  cumbersome  and  undesirable,  and  after 
two  years  of  trial  the  "  full  Synod  "  was  restored. 

5.  The  Adoption  of  the  Westminster  Stan- 
dards.—The  next  step  forward  in  realising  the  idea  of 
Presbyterianism  was  the  adoption,  or  elaboration,  of  an 
organic  law  or  constitution.  The  church  had  been 
governed  by  the  principles  recognised  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  but  these  principles  had  not  as  yet  been  formally 
declared  to  be  its  organic  law.  It  was  simply  a  tacit 
understanding  that  gave  them  authority.  The  occasion 
for  the  crystallisation  of  this  law  was  the  entrance  into 
the  ministry  of  men  whose  orthodoxy  was  not  vouched 
for,  except  by  the  fact  of  their  being  in  the  ministry  in 
the  old  country.  The  experience  of  the  Scotch  and  Irish 
churches  was,  no  doubt,  taken  as  a  basis  of  action  in  this 
particular.  The  Scotch  church,  in  1690,  and  the  Irish 
church,  in  1698,  enacted  a  requirement  of  subscription  to 
the  Westminster  Standards.  In  the  Synod  of  Ulster 
the  enactment,  which  was  at  first  made  to  apply  only  to 
candidates  for  licensure,  was  repeated,  and  its  applica- 
tion widened  so  as  to  include  all  ministers.  It  was 
done  mainly  as  a  safeguard  against  certain  tendencies 
toward  Arianism,  Pelagianism,  and  Arminianism.  In 
the  American  church  the  Presbytery  of  Newcastle  began 
to  require  subscription  as  early  as  1724.  The  movement 
to  make  the  requirement  of  subscription  universal  was 
'.nitiated  in  this  Presbytery.  John  Thompson,  one  of  its 
members,  overtured  the  Synod  of  Philadelphia  to  take 
this  step  in  1727.  The  Presbytery  itself  repeated  the 
overture  the  following  year,  and,  after  careful  debate,  it 
was  enacted,  in  1729:  "  All  ministers  of  this  Synod,  or 


lo6  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

that  shall  be  hereafter  admitted  to  this  Synod,  shall 
declare  their  agreement  in,  and  their  approbation  of, 
the  Confession  of  Faith,  with  the  Larger  and  Shorter 
Catechisms,  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  Westmin- 
ster, as  being  in  all  essential  and  necessary  articles  good 
forms  of  sound  words  and  systems  of  doctrine,  and  do 
also  adopt  the  said  Confession  and  Catechisms  as  the 
confession  of  our  faith.  .  .  .  And  in  case  any  minister 
of  this  Synod,  or  any  candidate  for  the  ministry,  shall 
have  scruples  with  respect  to  any  article  or  articles  of 
said  Confession  or  Catechisms,  he  shall  at  the  time  of 
making  such  declaration  declare  his  sentiments  to  the 
Presbytery  or  the  Synod,  who  shall,  notwithstanding, 
admit  him  to  the  exercise  of  the  ministry  within  our 
bounds,  and  to  ministerial  communion,  if  the  Synod  or 
Presbytery  shall  judge  his  scruples  or  mistake  to  be 
about  articles  not  essential  and  necessary  in  doctrine, 
worship,  or  government."  This  has  been  called  the 
Adopting  Act  of  1729. 

But  though  this  Adopting  Act  incorporates  the  broad 
principle  of  the  recognition  of  scruples,  providing  that 
such  scruples,  if  not  touching  the  essential  and  necessary 
articles  of  faith,  shall  not  stand  in  the  way  of  the  candi- 
date's admission,  as  a  matter  of  fact  all  scruples  enter- 
tained at  the  time  referred  to  some  clauses  of  Chapters 
XX  and  XXIV  of,  the  Confession,  treating  of  the  power 
of  civil  magistrates  in  matters  of  religion.  The  discus- 
sions leading  to  the  Adopting  Act  brought  to  the  front 
the  great  leader  and  theologian,  Jonathan  Dickinson, 
and  also  the  existence  of  a  line  of  distinction  between  the 
New  England  and  the  Scotch  and  Scotch-Irish  elements 
in  the  church.  It  pointed  to  the  ultimate  development, 
under  the  cooperating  influences  just  named,  of  a  new 
type  of  Presbyterianism,  which,  while  retaining  its  his- 
toric connection  with  its  original  stock  in  Great  Britain, 
should  be  more  flexible  and  adapted  to  the  new  country 
and  the  new  conditions  of  its  environment. 

6.  The  Synod,  from  1729  to  1741-The  Great 

Awakening.  —  During  the  twelve  years  following  the 


THE   UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      107 

Adopting  Act,  another  great  wave  of  growth  flooded  the 
church.  Besides  accessions  by  immigration,  this  period 
witnessed  a  great  influx,  due  to  a  revival  of  religion  that 
has  been  called  the  "  Great  Awakening."  This  move- 
ment was  simultaneous  with  the  great  Methodist  revival, 
led  by  Wesley  and  Whitefield,  in  England,  and  related 
to  it,  but  was  not  the  outgrowth  or  sequel  of  it.  It 
originated  independently,  and  antedated  the  Methodist 
movement  by  a  few  years.  It  arose  out  of  the  "  awaken- 
ing "  preaching  of  Jacob  Frelinghuysen,  pastor  of  the 
Dutch  Reformed  Church  at  Raritan,  N.  J.,  and  spread 
through  the  whole  country,  finding  many  prominent 
promoters,  among  them  Jonathan  Edwards  in  New 
England,  and  George  Whitefield,  who  visited  the  coun- 
try in  1739,  and  held  vast  audiences  spellbound  by  the 
magic  of  his  oratory.  Within  the  Presbyterian  Church 
the  exponents  of  this  movement  were  the  Tennents, 
of  New  Jersey.  It  is  in  connection  with  the  ministry 
of  the  Tennents  that  the  revival  introduced  certain 
new  conditions  into  the  church.  First  of  all,  the 
evangelistic  style  of  preaching  came  into  favour,  and 
being  somewhat  diflferent  from  that  which  had  hitherto 
prevailed,  produced  some  friction  in  the  ministry.  Those 
who  adopted  it  developed  a  tendency  to  look  down  upon 
their  brethren  of  the  older  style  as  inefficient,  therefore 
lacking  the  blessing  of  God  and  unconverted.  They  de- 
nounced them  as  such,  refusing  to  recognise  their  minis- 
terial character,  and  invaded  their  parishes,  holding 
services  in  them.  Expressing  the  views  of  the  newer 
and  more  aggressive  men,  Gilbert  Tennent  preached  the 
famous  sermon  at  Nottingham,  Pa.,  on  "An  Uncon- 
verted Ministry  "  (1740),  which  agitated  the  church  to  its 
depths.  Besides  creating  this  line  of  division  in  the 
ministry,  the  Awakening  so  far  increased  the  numbers 
of  those  needing  spiritual  ministration  that  the  question 
of  removing  or  modifying  the  educational  qualifications 
for  entrance  into  the  pastoral  office  was  brought  forward. 
William  Tennent,  father  of  Gilbert,  had  come  from 
Dublin  in   1727,  and  established  at  Neshaminy,  Pa.,  an 


io8  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

institution  for  the  training  of  Presbyterian  ministers, 
which  became  famous  as  the  "  Log  College."  Hitherto 
Presbyterians  had  required  of  all  candidates  for  licensure 
graduation  at  some  British  university  or  American  col- 
lege, such  as  Harvard  or  Yale.  It  was  now  proposed  to 
admit  others  than  those  possessing  this  qualification, 
especially  pupils  of  the  Log  College. 

7.  The  Disruption  of  1741.  — Upon  these  issues 
the  division  in  sentiment  daily  increased  until  it  reached 
a  crisis  in  1741.  At  the  meeting  of  Synod  that  year  the 
majority  of  the  Synod  agreed  to  a  "  protestation,"  in 
which  they  accused  the  party  represented  by  the  Ten- 
nents,  constituted  mainly  of  the  ministers  of  the  New 
Brunswick  Presbytery,  as  subverting  synodical  discipline, 
encouraging  arrogance,  entertaining  and  passing  censori- 
ous judgments  on  their  brethren,  dividing  congregations 
against  themselves,  and  alienating  them  from  their  estab- 
lished pastors.  Upon  the  acceptance  of  this  "  protesta- 
tion "  by  the  majority,  the  New  Brunswick  Presbytery 
withdrew.  Efforts  were  made,  indeed,  to  heal  the  breach 
before  it  grew  more  serious,  but  they  proved  unavailing. 
The  Presbytery  of  New  Brunswick,  joined  by  that  of 
New  York,  formed  the  Synod  of  New  York  in  1745. 
Thus  there  were  two  separate  churches,  represented  by 
the  Synod  of  Philadelphia,  which  was  called  the  "  Old 
Side,"  or  "  Old  Lights,"  and  the  Synod  of  New  York, 
called  the  "New  Side,"  or  "New  Lights."  When 
the  New  Side  withdrew  from  the  Synod  of  Philadel- 
phia, that  Synod  altered  the  terms  of  subscription  to  the 
Standards,  making  such  subscription  unconditional,  and 
allowing  no  statement  of  "  scruples  "  for  Synod  or  Pres- 
bytery to  pass  upon,  as  was  provided  by  the  terms  of  the 
Adopting  Act  of  1729. 

8.  The  Reunion  of  1758. -From  1741  to  1758  the 

two  Synods  acted  separately.  The  New  Side  was 
the  more  aggressive  of  the  two,  and  grew  much  more 
rapidly.  Its  twenty-two  ministers  of  1745  became 
seventy-two  in  1758.  The  causes  of  this  growth  were 
undoubtedly,  first  of  all,  its  use  of  the  evangelistic  method, 


THE   UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      109 

and,  secondly,  the  foundation  of  a  college,  enabling  it 
to  put  a  large  number  of  ministers  into  the  field.  A 
charter  was  secured  for  such  an  institution  in  1746,  and 
Jonathan  Dickinson  was  put  at  the  head  of  it,  and  in 
order  that  he  might  not  leave  his  pastorate  the  college 
was  located  in  his  parish,  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.  Upon 
his  death,  in  1747,  it  was  removed  to  Newark,  to  be 
under  the  direction  of  Aaron  Burr.  But  in  1755,  en- 
dowments having  been  secured,  and  a  grant  of  real  estate 
from  the  borough  of  Princeton,  N.  J.,  the  college  as 
well  as  its  president  were  removed  to  that  town. 

It  was  during  this  period,  also,  that  the  church  awoke 
to  the  need  of  missionary  work  among  the  native  Indians. 
David  Brainerd  established  himself  at  the  Forks  of  the 
Delaware,  and  in  a  brief  ministry  of  less  than  four  years 
started  activities  which  issued  in  the  conversion  of  a 
great  number.  His  brother  John  succeeded  him,  and 
though  with  less  energy,  faithfully  continued  his  labours 
until  his  death  in  1781.  Elihu  Spencer  also  worked 
among  the  Indians  of  the  Oneida  tribe  from  1748  to 
1750;  and  Samson  Occam,  a  Connecticut  Mohegan,  was 
ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of  Suffolk  to  evangelise  his 
own  people. 

The  division  in  Presbyterianism  was  not  destined  to 
last  long.  Much  of  the  feeling  characterising  the  dis- 
cussion that  led  to  it  was  soon  spent,  and  overtures  look- 
ing to  a  reunion  were  opened  as  early  as  1 749  by  the 
Synod  of  New  York.  The  negotiations  were,  however, 
slow  and  prolonged,  and  the  complete  understanding  that 
led  to  the  reunion  did  not  come  until  1758.  The  terms 
of  the  reunion  were  that  subscription  should  be  as  the 
Synod  of  Philadelphia  had  ordered — unconditional ;  that 
intrusion  into  the  parishes  of  established  pastors  should 
be  forbidden  ;  and  that  candidates  for  the  ministry  should 
be  examined  in  experimental  religion  as  well  as  in 
learning  and  orthodoxy.  The  name  adopted  was  the 
Synod  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia. 

9-  The  Reunited  Synod,  1758-75. -The  seven- 
teen years  following  the  reunion  were  marked  only  by 


iio  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

moderate  progress.  The  work  of  the  church  was  hin- 
dered by  the  political  distractions  and  excitement  of  those 
days.  Public  opinion  was  in  a  state  of  ferment.  The 
relation  of  the  Colonies  to  the  mother  country  was  the 
burning  question.  The  Presbyterians  were  universally 
in  favour  of  a  separation.  The  continued  sovereignty  of 
England  meant  to  them  a  source  of  power  to  Episcopacy 
and  a  menace  to  their  own  freedom.  Everywhere  they 
took  the  lead  in  the  movement  for  independence.  Many 
of  their  ministers  and  elders  were  found  active  in  the 
provincial  conventions  or  legislatures,  and  took  promi- 
nent part  in  bringing  matters  to  a  crisis.  The  most 
eminent  of  these  was,  without  doubt,  John  Witherspoon, 
a  lineal  descendant  of  John  Knox,  who  came  over  to  take 
the  presidency  of  Princeton  College  in  1768.  Sent  by 
the  Provincial  Congress  of  New  Jersey  to  the  Continental 
Convention,  he  became  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  and  was  characterised  by  his 
staunch  loyalty  to  General  Washington  when  others 
seemed  ready  to  desert,  and  even  assail,  this  leader. 
Nevertheless,  both  preceding  and  during  the  Revolu- 
tionary War  the  influences  were  adverse  to  church  life  in 
all  its  departments.  Regular  church  work  was  next  to 
impossible ;  the  support  of  the  ministry  became  very 
difficult ;  church  buildings  were  seized  and  used  as  bar- 
racks or  stables.  For  several  years  Princeton  College 
was  closed.  Presbyteries  and  Synods  were  thinly  at- 
tended. The  evil  was  aggravated  by  the  introduction  of 
French  thought,  through  the  means  of  the  French  officers 
that  came  to  serve  in  the  Revolutionary  army.  The  deism 
of  Voltaire,  with  its  frivolity,  was  acclimated  in  the 
country,  and  proved  detrimental  to  spiritual  life.  Yet 
these  conditions  only  tested  the  mettle  of  staunch  men, 
and  developed  the  heroism  which  perpetuated  the  life  of 
the  church  until  the  war  was  over  and  the  national  period 
began. 

10.  The  Organisation  of  the  General  Assembly, 

1789  —When  the  church  had  sufficiently  recovered  from 
the  effects  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  it  began  to  realise 


THE   UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      in 

the  necessity  of  entering  on  a  new  state  of  organisation 
— the  national.  The  movement  in  this  direction  first  took 
the  form  of  an  effort  to  consolidate  on  a  large  scale  the 
Calvinistic,  or  Reformed,  churches  into  a  confederation. 
The  Synod  entered  into  correspondence  with  the  Dutch 
Reformed  and  the  Associate  Reformed  Synods.  A  con- 
ference was  held  in  1785,  but  led  to  no  permanent  result. 
In  the  Synod's  session  of  1786  a  plan  was  proposed  in- 
volving the  erection  of  a  delegated  General  Assembly, 
and  the  subdivision  of  the  Synod  into  four  Synods.  This 
was  submitted  to  the  Presbyteries,  for  information,  with 
instructions  that  they  should  "  report  their  observations 
in  writing"  to  the  session  of  1787.  The  plan  was 
adopted  by  the  Synod  acting  alone  in  1788.  At  the 
same  time,  by  a  new  Adopting  Act,  the  Westminster 
Standards  were  declared  to  be  the  constitution  of  the 
church,  and  subscription  to  them  by  ofhce-bearers  was 
required  unconditionally.  In  1789  the  first  General  As- 
sembly met,  and  the  church  attained  its  national  stage  of 
organisation. 

1 1.  The  Revival  of  1800.— Everything  now  pointed 
to  a  vast  growth.  New  regions  were  being  daily  opened 
for  immigration  west  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  population 
was  pouring  into  them.  The  disturbances  of  the  war 
being  over,  men's  minds  were  naturally  all  the  more  sus- 
ceptible to  the  influences  of  religion.  A  natural  reaction 
from  the  low  ebb  of  spiritual  life  led  to  a  new  revival  in 
1800,  which  resembled  in  many  respects  that  of  I739> 
and  swept  over  the  country,  bringing  large  numbers  into 
the  church.  This  rapid  and  large  growth  issued  in  two 
directions  :  first,  in  reopening  the  question  of  an  educated 
ministry;  and,  second,  in  suggesting  cooperation  with 
other  Christian  bodies. 

The  question  of  an  educated  ministry  emerged  in  the 
Southwest.  The  revival  here  was  most  profoundly  felt. 
The  need  for  more  ministers  became  apparent,  and  the 
Presbytery  of  Transylvania  and  that  of  Cumberland 
licensed  several  young  men  who  had  not  had  the  educa- 
tion prescribed  by  the  rules  of  the  church,  and  who, 


112  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

possibly  on  that  account,  could  not  give  an  unqualified 
assent  to  the  teachings  of  the  Westminster  Standards 
with  respect  to  the  doctrines  of  election  and  persever- 
ance. The  minority  of  the  Cumberland  Presbytery 
protested  against  this  action.  The  case  went  to  the 
Synod  of  Kentucky,  and  was  by  that  body  referred  to  a 
commission  for  settlement.  The  commission  suspended 
the  majority  of  the  members  of  Presbytery,  and  dis- 
qualified all  its  licentiates.  Instead  of  carrying  the 
matter  to  the  General  Assembly  for  final  adjudication, 
the  Presbytery  of  Cumberland  allowed  it  to  go  by  default, 
and  later  (1810)  organised  itself  into  an  independent 
church. 

12.  The  Plan  of  Union.— But  if  the  growth  of 

these  years  led  to  this  disruption  on  the  one  hand,  it  was 
the  means  of  an  effort  at  union  on  the  other.  It  was  felt 
that  forms  of  evangelicalism  as  nearly  allied  as  Pres- 
byterianism  and  Congregationalism  would  be  wasting 
strength  in  entering  the  newly  settled  West  as  rivals,  or 
even  independently.  Their  combined  influence  was 
needed  to  save  the  new  population  to  evangelical  religion. 
A  Plan  of  Union  was  accordingly  devised  and  adopted  by 
the  Congregational  Association  of  Connecticut,  and  by 
the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  in 
1801.  This  plan  provided  that  churches  of  either  de- 
nomination might  call  pastors  from  the  other.  The 
pastors  thus  chosen  were  still  generally  amenable  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  courts  of  their  original  denomination ; 
but  in  cases  of  dispute  the  appeal  might  be  taken,  accord- 
ing to  the  option  of  the  parties,  either  to  the  Presbytery 
to  which  the  minister,  if  a  Presbyterian,  might  belong, 
to  a  council  composed  of  equal  numbers  from  each  de- 
nomination, or  to  the  Association  to  which  the  minister, 
if  a  Congregationalist,  might  belong.  This  plan,  though 
put  forth  in  the  interests  of  both  denominations  con- 
cerned, was  not  satisfactory  to  either.  As  far  as  it 
affected  Presbyterianism  it  resulted  in  a  vast  increase  in 
membership,  but  in  a  relaxation  both  of  doctrine  and 


THE   UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      113 

discipline  and  polity.  It  was  most  felt  on  the  latter 
point.  A  large  number  of  ministers  were  enrolled  as 
Presbyterians  who  had  little  knowledge  and  less  sym- 
pathy with  distinctively  Presbyterian  principles.  The 
principle  of  direct  control  of  the  home  mission  work  by 
the  church  was  necessarily  set  aside  for  that  of  control 
by  agencies  outside  the  jurisdiction  of  the  church.  In 
the  matter  of  doctrine,  a  form  of  Calvinism  known  as 
Hopkinsianism  was  at  the  time  prevalent  in  New  Eng- 
land. Many  of  the  ministers  who  were  allowed  by  the 
terms  of  the  Plan  of  Union  to  take  charge  of  Presbyterian 
churches  were  supposed  to  be  tainted  with  this  form  of 
belief.  Grave  fears  began  to  disturb  the  more  conser- 
vative element  in  the  church.  On  the  other  hand,  a  new 
school  of  thought  developed,  favouring  a  comprehensive 
and  free  interpretation  of  the  Standards. 

1 3-  The  Schism  of  1837-38.  -  Feeling  ran  high,  and 
ecclesiastical  trials  were  instituted  against  Lyman  Beecher 
and  Albert  Barnes.  The  case  of  Mr.  Barnes  was  pro- 
tracted from  1830  to  1836,  passing  from  one  form  to 
another,  and  though  decided  in  favour  of  the  New-School 
side,  led  to  further  debates,  and  ultimately  to  the  disrup- 
tion of  1838.  The  Plan  of  Union  was  abrogated  in  that  year, 
and  on  the  assumption  that  this  action  was  retroactive,  the 
Synods  and  Presbyteries  organised  under  the  arrange- 
ment were  exscinded.  The  boards  of  foreign  missions, 
of  domestic  missions,  and  of  education  were  organised, 
and  the  organisation  of  the  Old-School  church  was 
otherwise  completed  in  detail.  The  New-School 
church  was  organised  in  1838,  with  every  effort  to  con- 
form to  the  strict  ecclesiastical  law.  Ten  hundred  and 
ninety-three  ministers,  1260  churches,  and  106,000  com- 
municant members  followed  with  this  school ;  while  1615 
ministers,  1673  churches,  and  126,000  communicants 
remained  in  the  Old-School  church. 

14-  The  Secession  of  the  Southern  Church.— 

The  disruption  of  1838  lasted  until  1870.  During  this 
interval  both  Old-  and  New-School  churches  pressed  on 


114  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

with  their  work.  New  questions  emerged  in  the  sphere 
of  each,  especially  their  attitude  toward  slavery.  The 
importance  of  this  issue  was  seen  by  some  even  before 
the  rupture ;  but  it  became  the  burning  question  in  the 
church  only  as  it  assumed  the  first  place  in  the  political 
field.  The  New-School  church  was  prompt  to  take  radi- 
cal action  on  the  matter,  in  consequence  of  which,  in 
1854,  6  Synods,  21  Presbyteries,  and  15,000  communi- 
cants, living  in  the  Southern  States,  seceded  and  formed 
the  United  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  The  Old- 
School  Assembly  also,  though  more  slowly,  ultimately 
came  to  condemn  slavery.  Partly  in  consequence  of  this 
action,  but  more  because  of  the  anticipated  division  of 
the  nation  into  two,  and  because  of  adherence  to  the 
principle  that  "  each  nation  should  contain  a  separate 
and  independent  church,"  1  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
the  Confederate  States  was  organised  in  1861.  In  1864 
the  United  Synod  joined  this  body,  to  constitute  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  the  United  States,  a  title  finally 
adopted  after  the  collapse  of  the  Confederate  States. 

15.  The  Bieunion  of  1870.  — Soon  after  the  secession 
of  the  Southern  Presbyteries  and  Synods,  the  spirit  of 
reunion  began  to  work  in  the  North.  As  early  as  1863, 
a  "  friendly  interchange  of  commissioners  "  between  the 
Old-  and  New-School  Assemblies  was  entered  into.  The 
movement  thus  inaugurated  could  not  rest  until,  in  1869, 
the  two  Assemblies  met  in  Pittsburg,  and  declared  the 
union  agreed  to  by  the  Presbyteries,  and  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  reunited  church  was  convened  to  meet 
in  Philadelphia  in  1870.  The  reunion  was  effected  upon 
the  broad  basis  of  the  "  Standards  pure  and  simple." 
Neither  party  was  called  upon  to  retract  any  utterance  or 
sacrifice  any  principle  it  represented.  The  Synods  and 
Presbyteries  were  naturally  reconstructed  so  as  to  avoid 
duplication  and  waste  of  effort,  and  a  fund  of  $7,607,- 

1  Address  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  to  all  the  Churches  of  Jesus  Christ 
through  the  Earth,  etc.,  prepared  by  J.  H.  Thornwell,  and  unani- 
mously adopted  at  Augusta,  Ga.,  December,  1861. 


THE   UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      115. 

491.91  was  raised  to  commemorate  the  event,  and  the' 
reunited  church  resumed  its  work  with  new  vigour.  Yet 
even  during  the  schism  the  church  had  shown  remark- 
able vitality  and  growth.  In  spite  of  the  defection  of  the 
Southern  branch,  it  enrolled,  when  reconstructed,  35 
Synods,  167  Presbyteries,  4238  ministers,  4526  churches, 
and  nearly  450,000  communicants. 

16.  Intellectual  Life  of  the  Church.— It  was  dur- 
ing the  period  of  the  division  that  the  greatest  intellectual 
and  missionary  activity  was  developed.  Until  1837 
the  Presbyterian  Church  had  many  good  preachers, 
but  no  scholars  or  theologians  of  towering  promi- 
nence, with  the  exception  of  Jonathan  Edwards.  Since 
that  period  she  has  given  Christendom  men  like  Ed- 
ward Robinson,  whose  "  Biblical  Researches  in  Pales- 
tine "  mark  an  epoch  in  Biblical  geography  and  explora- 
tion ;  J.  Addison  Alexander,  a  scholar  of  the  first  rank 
in  everything  he  touched;  Charles  Hodge  and  Henry 
B.  Smith,  peers  in  systematic  theology,  not  to  be  com- 
pared with  one  another,  because  they  represent  the  two 
sides  of  their  department, — the  former  the  Biblical  foun- 
dation and  the  latter  the  philosophical  method,  — but  peer- 
less outside;  Robert  J.  Breckinridge  and  J.  H.  Thornwell,. 
men  of  affairs  and  theological  thinkers  at  the  same  time  ? 
besides  Drs.  Schaff  and  McCosh,  who,  though  claiming: 
American  Presbyterianism  only  as  an  adopted  mother,, 
gave  to  it  their  most  distinguished  services.  The  educa- 
tional system  of  the  church  has  also  expanded  during 
these  years  ;  besides  Princeton,  twelve  other  colleges  had 
been  planted  in  the  country  before  the  schism,  under  Pres- 
byterian control.  To  these  nineteen  have  been  added 
since.  Of  theological  seminaries  that  at  Princeton  dates, 
from  1812;  Auburn  was  established  in  1819;  Western. 
(Allegheny),  in  1827;  Lane,  in  1829;  McCormick,  in  1830, 
at  Hanover,  Ind.  (removed  to  New  Albany  in  1840,  and 
to  Chicago,  its  present  home,  in  1859) ;  Daaville,  in  1853 ; 
Union,  N.  Y.,  was  established  as  an  independent  insti- 
tution in  1836;  Sitnt  Francisco  was  opened'  in  1871, 
and    Omaha    in    i8«<M...      Two    theological    institjjaticns^ 


ii6  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

have  been  founded  for  the  training  of  German  min- 
isters— one  in  Dubuque  (1852),  and  one  in  Newark 
(1869) ;  and  two  for  the  education  of  ministers  for  the 
freedmen— Biddle  University  (1868)  and  Lincoln  Uni- 
versity (1871). 

17-  Missionary  Activity.— During  the  first  part 
of  the  century  the  church  adopted  the  system  of  boards, 
through  which  it  has  since  administered  its  benevolences  ; 
although  as  early  as  183 1  the  Rev.  J.  H.  Rice,  of  Vir- 
ginia, broached  the  idea  that  "  the  church  was  a  mis- 
sionary society,  and  every  member  of  the  church  is  a 
member  for  life  of  the  said  society."  The  first  board 
organised  was  that  of  Home  Missions,  in  18 16.  During 
its  existence  it  has  raised  and  expended  about  twenty 
million  dollars.  Thus,  as  the  great  country  west  of  the 
Alleghanies,  then  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and,  finally, 
west  of  the  Rockies,  was  opened  up,  this  board  stood 
ready  to  plant  Presbyterianism  in  it.  The  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions  is  the  offspring  and  successor  of  the 
Western  Home  Missionary  Society,  organised  by  the 
Synod  of  Pittsburg  in  October,  1831.  At  that  date  the 
main  work  of  foreign  missions  was  still  being  carried  on 
by  Presbyterians  in  conjunction  with  Congregationalists, 
through  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for 
Foreign  Missions.  When  the  Old-  and  New-School 
churches  separated,  the  New  School  continued  to  work 
together  with  the  Congregationalists  ;  but  the  Old  School 
adopted  the  Western  Missionary  Society,  and  converted 
it  into  a  board  of  the  whole  church.  The  first  report 
of  the  board,  in  1838,  showed  15  missionaries,  23  assis- 
tants, and  $45,498  of  receipts.  With  the  strength  added 
to  the  cause  by  the  reunion,  the  board  has  raised  and 
spent  over  $20,000,000,  and  its  report  for  1897  shows 
708  missionaries,  1802  assistants,  and  $959, 774. 5 7  raised. 

In  addition  to  these  two  great  boards  others  have  been 
erected,  such  as  the  Board  of  Education,  intended  to  aid 
young  men  for  the  ministry,  in  18 19 ;  that  of  Publication, 
to  distribute  Christian  literature  and  extend  the  Sabbath- 
school  system  of  the  church  into  destitute  regions ;  that 


r-^ 


THE   UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      117 

of  Church  Erection,  to  aid  congregations  in  securing 
suitable  places  of  worship;  that  of  Ministerial  Relief,  to 
provide  for  the  aged  and  infirm  servants  of  the  church, 
and  for  their  widows  and  orphans ;  that  of  Freedmen, 
for  the  support  of  the  gospel  among  the  destitute  freedmen 
of  the  South  ;  and  that  of  Aid  for  Colleges  and  Academies, 
to  assist  struggling  institutions  in  the  newer  regions  of 
the  land.  The  present  strength  of  the  church  is  repre- 
sented in  the  following  statistics  :  Synods,  32 ;  Presby- 
teries,  229;  ministers,  7129;  churches,  7631;  communi- 
cants, 960,911. 


II.  Other  Presbyterian  Churches  of  American 
Origin 

I.  The  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church.— It 
was  not  the  intention  of  those  who  organised  the  Cum- 
berland Presbytery,  after  its  disciplinary  dissolution  by 
the  Synod  of  Kentucky,  to  found  a  new  denomination. 
They  hoped  to  carry  on  Christian  work  independently, 
as  a  Presbytery  in  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and  some 
time  in  the  future  they  thought  they  might  be  taken  into 
connection  with  the  church  again.  They  were  zealous, 
and  their  evangelistic  methods  proved  effective.  Within 
three  years  after  the  reorganisation  of  the  Cumberland 
Presbytery,  it  was  found  necessary  to  form  a  Synod,  and 
fifteen  years  later  a  General  Assembly.  Though  origi- 
nating in  the  movement  to  relax  the  qualification  of  educa- 
tion for  entrance  into  the  ministry,  the  denomination  has 
worked  around  to  the  old  position  of  high  ideals.  It 
has  founded  and  maintains  academies,  colleges,  and  uni- 
versities, and  a  theological  seminary  at  Lebanon,  Tenn. 
They  adopted  in  18 14  a  doctrinal  platform  explanatory  of 
the  Westminster  Standards,  toning  down,  and,  as  some 
think,  eliminating  Calvinism  out  of  them,  and  in  1883 
adopted  a  new  Confession  of  Faith,  carrying  out  the 
sentiment  of  the  explanatory  statement  of  1814, 

Like  all  the  other  evangelical  bodies  it  was  agitated 


ii8  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

by  the  Civil  War,  and  had  to  confront  the  question  of  the 
treatment  of  freedmen.  A  desire  having  been  expressed 
among  these  for  an  independent  church,  such  a  church 
was  organised  in  1869,  and  has  in  its  connection  20 
Presbyteries  and  15,000  communicants.  The  Cumber- 
land Church  itself  numbers  126  Presbyteries,  1571  minis- 
ters, 2915  churches,  and  175,642  communicants. 

2.  The  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States.  — This  is  the  name  of  the  church  which  arose, 
in  1861,  out  of  the  differences  in  the  Old-School  Presby- 
terian body  as  to  slavery.  The  occasion  of  the  separation 
of  this  branch  has  already  been  stated  to  have  been  the 
expectation  on  the  part  of  its  leaders  that  the  Confederate 
States  would  soon  be  an  independent  nation,  and  the 
belief  in  the  principle  that  each  nation  should  have  its 
own  national  church.  With  this  was  always  associated 
in  the  minds  of  the  leaders  the  radical  difference  between 
their  own  views  and  those  of  their  brethren  of  the  North- 
ern States  as  to  the  scope  and  function  of  the  church  in 
civil  and  secular  affairs.  They  held  that  the  body  of 
Christ  is  spiritual,  and  must  not  intermeddle  in  purely 
secular  matters,  such  as  they  regarded  the  slavery  ques- 
tion to  be.  When  the  hope  of  a  separate  nation  of  Con- 
federate States  was  given  up,  the  church  planted  itself 
squarely  upon  this  idea,  and  has  persisted  in  regarding 
the  Northern  branch  as  derelict  to  this  fundamental  con- 
ception of  the  body  of  Christ.  The  ante-bellum  declara- 
tions on  slavery  it  denounces  as  an  interference  in  political 
matters,  therefore  as  sinful.  During  the  thirty-six  years 
of  its  existence  it  has  rigorously  pushed  its  work  in  the  ter- 
ritory naturally  belonging  to  it.  It  carried  with  it  two 
theological  seminaries  at  the  time  of  the  secession  :  Union 
Seminary,  at  Hampden-Sidney,  Va.  (founded  in  1824), 
and  Columbia  Seminary,  in  Columbia,  S.  C.  (founded 
in  1828) ;  to  these  it  has  added  a  third  at  Louisville,  Ky., 
in  1 89 1.  Besides,  it  has  fostered  the  policy  of  distinct 
schools  in  connection  with  universities,  of  which  it  now 
possesses  one  as  a  department  of  the  Southwestern  Pres- 
byterian   University,    in    Clarksville,    Tenn.    (founded 


THE   UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      119 

in  1885),  and  one  in  connection  with  the  University  of 
Texas,  at  Austin,  — Austin  School  of  Theology, — founded 
in  1884  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  R.  L.  Dabney.  This  church 
has  further  reverted  to  the  principle  of  administering  its 
benevolences  and  missionary  work  through  committees 
rather  than  by  corporate  boards.  Its  strength  is  repre- 
sented by  the  following  statistics:  Synods  (?),  Presby- 
teries, 75;  ministers,  1393;  churches,  2816;  communi- 
cants, 211,694. 

III.    Churches  of  Continental  Origin 

I.  The  (Dutch)  Reformed  Church  in  America.  — 
(i)  Origin. — This  church  was  an  offshoot  from  the  Re- 
formed Church  of  Holland,  and  was  introduced  into  the 
western  continent  as  a  consequence  of  the  explorations 
of  Hudson,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company.  The  country  opened  up  by  Hudson  was  an 
inviting  field  for  commercial  enterprise,  and  the  Company, 
having  bought  the  island  of  Manhattan  from  the  Indians 
for  twenty-four  dollars,  renamed  it  New  Amsterdam,  and 
settled  it  with  traders.  It  was  here  that,  in  1628,  the 
first  strictly  American  church  was  organised,  with  Jonas 
Michaelius  as  its  pastor;  and  from  that  year  until  1664 
other  churches  to  the  number  of  thirteen  were  planted 
in  quick  succession,  to  supply  the  increasing  membership 
of  the  settlement.  The  Church  of  Holland  very  wisely, 
as  well  as  in  the  spirit  of  aggressiveness  and  Christian 
liberality,  encouraged  the  expansion  of  this  work  by 
sending  ministers  and  money  to  it. 

(2)  Struggle  for  Independence  under  English 

Rule.  —  In  1664  the  city  and  colony  of  New  Amsterdam 
were  wrested  from  the  East  India  Company  by  the  Eng- 
lish government.  The  city  was  renamed  New  York,  and 
put  under  British  control.  The  Reformed  Church  was 
allowed  to  exist  as  a  body  of  dissent,  but  its  further  ex- 
tension was  made  illegal.  Immigrants  from  Holland  no 
longer  found  it  congenial  to  settle  here,  and  some  that 
had  already  made  their  homes  in  the  colony  removed  to 


120  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

the  Carolinas.  The  position  of  the  church  was  reduced 
to  a  very  anomalous  one  as  an  ecclesiastical  organisation 
in  connection  with  Holland,  whose  membership  and 
ministry  held  allegiance  to  the  British  king.  Its  life  now 
depended  on  its  ability  to  prevent  the  establishment  of 
the  Episcopal  Church  in  the  colony.  As  its  membership 
constituted  the  great  bulk  of  the  population,  this  was  not 
a  difficult  undertaking,  and  yet,  without  legal  action  and 
contrary  to  the  facts,  the  governor  at  one  time  declared 
that  such  establishment  did  exist.  In  1673  the  Dutch 
reconquered  New  York,  but  were  able  to  hold  it  only  for 
a  brief  year.  From  1674  to  the  closing  years  of  that 
century  its  efforts  centred  about  the  prevention  of  such 
legislation  in  the  colony  as  might  make  the  claim  of 
establishment  an  effective  act  of  tyranny.  To  put  the 
church  beyond  the  power  of  Episcopacy,  a  charter  was 
sought  for  and  secured,  in  1696,  for  the  First  Church  of 
New  York  from  William  III.,  and  thus  independence 
was  firmly  established. 

(3)  Separation  from  Holland.— The  next  step  was 

to  cut  loose  from  the  Church  of  Holland.  Even  during 
the  period  of  its  struggle  with  Episcopacy  the  Reformed 
Church  had  grown.  Her  13  churches  of  1664  had  be- 
come, at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  34,  and,  in 
I737>  65.  But  her  affiliation  with  the  Church  of  Hol- 
land prevented  the  use  of  the  most  effective  means  for 
further  progress  ;  the  quickest  and  most  healthful  advance 
could  only  come  by  establishing  an  American  ecclesias- 
tical court  to  administer  authority  on  local  matters.  As 
it  was,  there  was  no  authority  even  to  ordain  ministers 
on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic ;  and  the  journey  across  to 
Holland  was  long,  tedious,  expensive,  and  dangerous. 
Moreover,  the  bond  between  Holland  and  the  colony  was 
growing  weaker,  owing  to  the  passage  of  the  latter  under 
English  rule.  These  facts  were  forced  before  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Reformed  churches  in  America,  and  a  petition 
was  sent  to  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam,  with  which  these 
churches  were  in  affiliation,  for  a  meeting  to  consider  the 
establishment  of  a  Coetus  for  the  American  churches. 


THE   UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      121 

After  some  delay  this  was  granted,  and,  all  attempts  to 
unite  the  churches  with  the  Presbyterian  Church  having 
meantime  failed  of  their  aim,  the  Coetus  was  organised 
in  1747. 

(4)  Fuller  Organisation.— The  Coetus  was  an  as- 
sociation of  the  ministers,  with  little  authority.  It  was 
only  in  subordinate  and  unessential  matters  that  a  decisive 
voice  was  given  it.  The  arrangement  was  soon  found 
inadequate  and  unsatisfactory.  The  full  organisation  of 
Classes  and  a  Synod  was,  however,  delayed,  owing  to 
some  dissentions  in  New  York  as  to  the  foundation  of  a 
college.  Nevertheless,  the  Coetus  assumed  the  functions 
of  a  Classis  in  1754.  Meanwhile,  toward  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  English  language  began  to  dis- 
place the  Dutch  in  services  of  worship,  and  the  number 
of  churches  grew  to  about  one  hundred.  The  time  seemed 
to  have  arrived  for  the  formation  of  a  Synod.  The 
original  Classis  was  divided  into  five  Classes  (New 
York,  Albany,  New  Brunswick,  Kingston,  Hackensack), 
under  one  Provisional  Synod.  This  was  changed,  in 
1794,  to  a  General  Synod,  and  this  body  again  was  di- 
vided into  two  Particular  Synods  (Albany  and  New 
York),  thus  completing  the  organisation  of  the  church 
in  1800.  Two  newer  Particular  Synods  have  been  formed 
since,  those  of  Chicago  (in  1856)  and  of  New  Brunswick 
(in  1869),  but  no  new  principle  of  church  life  was  in- 
volved in  these  additions. 

(5)  Education.— The  Reformed  Church  claims  the 
earliest  theological  seminary  in  the  country.  Dr.  J.  H. 
Livingston,  who  has  had  much  to  do  in  determining  the 
thought  of  the  church,  was  appointed  Professor  of  Theol- 
ogy in  1784;  he  taught  in  New  York  and  at  Flatbush, 
Long  Island.  Other  professors  were  appointed  to  teach 
in  other  parts  of  the  country ;  but  these  were  concen- 
trated, in  1810,  in  New  Brunswick.  Here  Rutgers 
College  was  planted  at  the  same  time,  as  a  sequel  to 
efforts  whose  origin  dates  back  to  1756.  Union  Col- 
lege, Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  was  founded  in  1795,  and 
Hope  College,  Holland,  Mich.,  with  the  Western  Theo- 


122  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

logical  Seminary,  in  1 866.  The  Reformed  Church 
numbers  4  Synods,  34  Classes,  605  churches,  636  minis- 
ters, and  102,631  communicants. 

(6)  The  Christian  Reformed  Church.— Ever  since 

1822  there  has  been  in  the  United  States  an  organisation 
allied  and  affiliated  in  general  with  the  Reformed  Church, 
but  not  recognising  its  jurisdiction.  The  original  nucleus 
of  this  church  consisted  of  five  ministers,  who  seceded,  in 
1822,  on  account  of  Hopkinsian  errors  of  doctrine  and 
looseness  of  discipline.  The  disruption  which  occurred 
in  the  Church  of  Holland  in  1837,  and  resulted  in  the 
formation  of  the  Christian  Reformed  Church  (p.  53),  led 
to  the  transplanting  of  a  branch  of  the  seceding  body 
into  Michigan.  Another  secession,  on  the  ground  of  the 
refusal  of  the  General  Synod  to  condemn  Freemasonry, 
took  place  in  1S82.  The  three  elements  have  existed, 
since  1889,  as  the  Christian  Reformed  Church,  number- 
ing: I  Synod,  7  Classes,  123  churches,  81  ministers,  and 
16,740  communicants. 

2.  The  (German)  Reformed  Church  in  the 
United  States  of  North  America.— The  begin- 
nings of  any  movement  that  deserves  the  name  of  migra- 
tion  of  German-speaking  people  to  America  cannot  be 
traced  further  back  than  the  last  quarter  of  the  seven- 
teenth century ;  and  even  at  this  date  the  numbers  of  the 
immigrants  were  rather  meagre.  Francis  Daniel  Pastorius 
came  over,  at  the  invitation  of  William  Penn,  with  a 
colony,  and  founded  Germantown.  It  was  a  quarter  of 
a  century  later  that  the  tide  set  in  strongly,  and  a  host 
numbering  into  the  hundreds  of  thousands,  mainly  from 
the  Palatinate,  or  the  Rhine  provinces,  left  their  home  in 
search  of  freedom  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  They 
settled  in  eastern  Pennsylvania,  and  organised  congre- 
gations in  Germantown,  Philadelphia,  and  vicinity.  Be- 
tween 1 710  and  1727  a  ministry  was  brought  into  service 
to  take  charge  of  those  churches,  partly  from  the  Old 
World,  and  partly  by  the  ordination  of  men  by  the  Dutch 
Reformed  and  Presbyterian  Synods.  But  these  efforts 
were  scattered,  and  might  have  continued  indefinitely 


THE   UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      123 

without  adequate  results,  had  not  the  spirit  of  organisa- 
tion been  infused  into  them  by  the  arrival  of  Michael 
Schlatter  in  1746.  Schlatter  was  a  remarkable  man,  and 
takes  his  place  as  the  pioneer  and  founder  of  the  German 
Reformed  Church  in  America  on  the  ground  of  his 
prompt,  energetic,  and  effective  labours.  He  brought 
together  the  ministers  already  on  the  ground,  and  estab- 
lished the  first  Coetus,  or  Synod,  in  1747.  This  Coetus 
was  put  into  affiliation  with  the  Reformed  Synod  of 
Amsterdam.  Schlatter's  indomitable  zeal  enabled  him 
to  face  dangers  and  endure  severe  hardships  in  the  en- 
deavour to  organise  the  scattered  members  of  the  German 
Calvinistic  bodies  into  congregations,  to  supply  them  with 
ministers,  and  to  secure  funds  from  Holland,  England, 
and  Scotland  for  the  maintenance  and  extension  of  his 
work.  The  period  of  his  ministry  appears  to  have  been 
a  period  of  fraternal  relations  with  other  Christian  bodies. 
Ecclesiastical  lines  were  frequently  overlooked.  Schlatter 
and  Henry  Melchior  Muhlenburg  (founder  of  American 
Lutheranism)  were  in  brotherly  fellowship  and  coopera- 
tion with  one  another.  The  German  church  was  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church  of  Holland.  This  inchoate 
state  of  ecclesiastical  law  further  found  expression  in  the 
career  of  one  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  German 
ministers  of  the  period— P.  W.  Otterbein.  Though  a 
native  of  Nassau,  and  a  member  for  life  of  the  Reformed 
German  Coetus  and  Synod  of  America,  Otterbein  was 
full  of  the  spirit  of  pietism  found  so  richly  in  Zinzendorf 
and  Wesley,  and  held,  with  them,  to  a  higher  unity  of 
Christians  of  different  denominations.  His  influence  on 
the  German  Reformed  Church  was  not  inconsiderable. 
Yet  he  is  best  known  as  the  founder  of  the  Church  of  the 
United  Brethren  in  Christ. 

But  the  anomalous  relation  of  the  German  church, 
acknowledging  the  authority  of  a  superior  court  in  Hol- 
land, could  not  abide  permanently.  It  was  given  up  in 
1793,  and  the  Coetus  developed  into  the  Synod  of  the 
German  Reformed  Church.  At  this  time  the  numerical 
strength  of  this  church  was  represented  by  178  ministers 


124  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

and  5000  families — the  family  being  the  unit  of  enroll- 
ment instead  of  the  individual  communicant.  The  next 
step  forward  in  the  perfection  of  the  organisation  of  the 
church,  after  the  separation  from  the  Church  of  Holland, 
was  the  establishment  of  the  Classis.  The  Synod  saw 
the  expediency  of  adopting  this  measure,  and  did  so  in 
1819.  It  divided  itself  into  eight  Classes.  These  were 
to  exercise  jurisdiction  within  given  bounds,  and  their 
delegates  were  to  compose  the  Synod.  Later  the  rite  of 
ordination  was  relegated  to  them.  One  of  them — that 
of  Western  Pennsylvania — blossomed,  in  1824,  into  the 
separate  Synod  of  Ohio.  In  1863  the  original,  or 
mother  Synod,  and  this  Synod  of  Ohio  united  under 
a  General  Synod,  and  the  organisation  of  the  church 
was  thus  completed. 

The  chief  weakness  of  the  German  Reformed  Church 
has  been  its  inability  to  supply  an  adequate  number  of 
well-equipped  ministers  to  take  charge  of  existing  con- 
gregations, or  form  others  out  of  the  elements  naturally 
belonging  to  it.  Its  ministry  has  always  been,  propor- 
tionately to  the  number  of  churches,  less  numerous  than 
that  of  other  denominations.  It  was  not  until  1825  that 
a  theological  seminary  was  established  at  Carlisle.  In 
collegiate  education,  the  first  effort  of  this  church  was 
put  forth  in  conjunction  with  the  Lutherans.  The  two 
denominations  combined  in  establishing  Franklin  Col- 
lege at  Lancaster  (18 18).  The  Theological  Seminary  of 
Carlisle  was  removed  to  York  in  1829,  and  in  1837  to 
Mercersburg.  Here  Marshall  College  was  founded  in 
1835  ;  but  as  this  college  was  removed  to  Lancaster  and 
joined  with  Franklin  College,  the  seminary  also  was 
transferred  there  (1871).  Other  colleges  have  followed : 
such  as  Heidelberg  University  (1850),  Ursinus  College, 
Catawba  College,  Calvin  College,  and  the  German  Mis- 
sion House  in  Sheboygan,  Wis. 

The  progress  of  this  church  has  been  rapid.  Of  the 
large  stream  of  German  immigration  one  third  goes  to 
swell  her  membership.  Like  its  sister  of  the  Dutch 
connection,  it  continued  for  a  time  to  use  the  language 


THE   UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      125 

of  the  fatherland  in  its  services  of  worship,  but  it  has 
permitted  the  English  in  congregations  of  the  third  and 
fourth  generations.  Its  life  has  been  even  and  peaceful. 
A  slight  ripple  did  appear  on  its  generally  smooth  surface 
in  the  Mercersburg  controversy,  in  which  Professors 
SchaflF  and  Nevin  were  called  into  question;  but  the 
agitation  was  momentary  and  led  to  nothing  serious. 
The  statistics  for  1896  show  that  it  has  8  Synods,  55 
Classes,  1000  ministers,  1663  congregations,  229,100 
communicants. 


IV.  Churches  of  Scottish  Dissenting  Origin 

The  Presbyterian  Church  of  America  had  been  in 
existence  for  a  generation,  organised  first  under  Pres- 
bytery and  then  under  Synod,  before  the  rift  existing 
between  establishment  and  dissent  in  Scotland  made 
itself  seen  on  the  western  side  of  the  ocean.  In  1740 
Alexander  Craighead  was  suspended  from  the  ministry 
by  the  Presbytery  of  Donegal,  for  making  the  Covenants 
a  term  of  communion  in  the  church  of  Middle  Octorara, 
Pa.  Three  years  later  he  and  his  followers  renewed  the 
Covenants,  and  appealed  to  the  Reformed  Presbytery  of 
Scotland  to  send  them  helpers.  This  Presbytery  sent 
John  Cuthbertson  in  1751,  but  by  that  time  Craighead 
had  joined  the  Synod  of  New  York,  or  "  New  Side,"  in 
the  disruption  of  1741-58.  Cuthbertson  was  destined  to 
labour  single-handed  for  the  next  twenty  years. 

From  another  quarter,  and  upon  other  grounds,  the 
Associate  Presbytery  in  Scotland  received  a  petition  to 
send  a  minister,  or  probationer,  to  preach  to  the  scattered 
members  of  the  same  faith  in  America ;  but  they  could 
not  grant  the  request.  The  petition  was  repeated  later, 
and  Alexander  Gellatly  and  Andrew  Arnot  were  sent,  in 
I753»  by  the  Anti-Burgher  Synod.  On  their  arrival  they 
organised  the  Associate  Presbytery  of  Pennsylvania. 

In  1 773  John  Cuthbertson  was  reinforced  by  the  arrival 
of  two  new  ministers  of  the  Reformed  Presbytery,  and 


126  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

the  Reformed  Presbytery  of  America  was  organised  on 
a  distinct  article  of  refusal  to  recognise  allegiance  to  an 
immoral  government.  Thus  the  two  forms  of  Scottish 
dissent  were  fully  transplanted  on  the  western  hemi- 
sphere. 

The  Associate  Presbytery  was  of  Anti-Burgher  origin. 
Between  1764  and  1768  several  ministers  of  the  Burgher 
branch  of  the  Scottish  Associate  Synod  came  over ;  and 
as  the  questions  between  Burghers  and  Anti-Burghers 
were  not  relevant  to  American  life,  they  joined  the  only 
Associate  Presbytery  in  the  Colonies.  In  1776  this 
Presbytery  was  divided  into  two,  each  being  directly  re- 
lated to  the  Synod  of  Scotland.  In  1782  the  Reformed 
Presbytery  voted  to  unite  with  the  Associate  Presbyteries, 
and  thus  the  Associate  Reformed  Church  of  America  was 
founded. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  a  minority  of  the  Associate 
Presbytery  protested,  and  persisted  in  maintaining  a 
separate  existence,  reinforced  from  Scotland;  and  the 
Reformed  Presbytery  of  Scotland  refused  to  recognise  the 
union,  and  reconstructed  its  American  branch  (1798). 
Thus  there  were  three  separate  bodies  representing  the 
Scottish  dissenting  element.  The  Reformed  Presbytery 
continued  quietly  gaining  ground  until  it  had,  in  1823,  a 
General  Synod  with  two  subordinate  Synods.  The  As- 
sociate Presbytery  also  grew  steadily  by  immigration  from 
Scotland,  and  was  in  affiliation  with  the  Scottish  body 
until  1818.  The  Associate  Reformed  Church  naturally 
advanced  more  rapidly  than  either  of  the  preceding.  An 
effort  to  unite  it  with  the  General  Assembly,  made  under 
the  leadership  of  John  M.  Mason,  in  1820,  resulted  in 
the  absorption  of  only  a  section  by  that  body.  These 
three  churches  moved  on,  with  slight  disintegrating 
tendencies,  only  counteracted  by  the  deeper  and  more 
widespread  tendency  toward  union  with  each  other, 
and  thus  finally,  in  1858-59,  issued  in  the  formation  of 
the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  North  America.  The 
distinctive  principles  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church 
are  the  exclusive  use  of  the  Psalms  in  divine  worship, 


THE   UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      127 

opposition  to  secret  societies,  and  close  communion. 
Until  within  a  few  years  it  also  forbade  the  use  of  instru- 
mental music  in  its  services  ;  but  on  this  point  option  is 
now  given  to  each  congregation  either  to  use  or  not  to 
use  musical  instruments. 

Every  union  has  left  fragments  of  the  uniting  bodies 
refusing  to  enter  it,  and  continuing  the  corporate  life  of 
the  original  bodies.  The  union  that  led  to  the  consolida- 
tion of  the  Covenanters  and  Seceders  was  no  exception. 
But  the  great  working  body  of  Scottish  dissent  of  the 
eighteenth  century  is  in  connection  with  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church.  This 
Assembly  has  a  constituency  of  64  Presbyteries,  812 
ministers,  891  churches,  and  108,828  communicants. 

Of  the  other  churches,  the  Associate  Reformed  Synod 
of  the  South  holds  127  churches  in  9  Presbyteries,  minis- 
tered to  by  93  ministers,  and  enrolls  10,277  communi- 
cants. Next  comes  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  United  States  (Synod),  with  12  Presbyteries,  108 
churches,  107  ministers,  and  9400  communicants.  Third 
in  size  is  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  of  North 
America  (General  Synod),  with  7  Presbyteries,  t,^ 
churches,  41  ministers,  and  5000  communicants.  And 
last,  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church,  with  i  minister, 
I  church,  and  37  communicants. 

To  complete  the  list  of  Presbyterian  organisations  of 
British  origin  in  America,  we  must  name  finally  the 
Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  Church,  which  is  repre- 
sented by  6  Synods,  18  Presbyteries,  105  ministers,  185 
churches,  and  12,000  communicants;  and  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
whose  I  church  is  ministered  to  by  i  minister,  and 
numbers  600  communicants. 

General  Distribution  of  Presbyterianism. — 

The  distribution  of  the  church  is  now  wide  as 
the  States,  and  in  her  extension  she  has  been  helped 
rather  than  hindered  by  the  existence  of  her  numerous 
sections.  With  so  vast  a  field  to  work  upon,  the  evils 
of  overlapping,  which  are  so  well  known  ia  Scotland,  are 


128  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

here  comparatively  unknown.  Emulation  between  the 
different  Presbyterian  churches  there  is,  but  not  rivalry. 
Of  the  six  greater  churches  which  had  been  mentioned, 
and  which  include  97  per  cent  of  the  Presbyterian  popu- 
lation, no  two  churches  minister  to  the  same  section  of 
the  people.  Geographical  or  racial  distinctions  mark  off 
their  various  fields  of  labour,  a  fact  which  makes  for  peace 
in  the  present  time,  and  which,  when  the  hour  for  closer 
union  approaches,  will  make  the  final  fusion  more  easy  of 
accomplishment. 

Alliance  of  the  Reformed  Churches 

The  great  majority  of  the  Presbyterian  and  Reformed 
churches  are  united  in  an  organisation  known  as  the 
"  Alliance  of  the  Reformed  Churches  throughout  the 
World,  Holding  the  Presbyterian  System."  More  than 
ninety  national  and  denominational  churches,  found  upon 
all  five  continents,  are  included  in  it.  The  business  of 
the  Alliance  is  conducted  by  an  executive  commission, 
composed  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  ministers 
and  elders  from  the  constituent  churches.  This  commis- 
sion holds  semi-annual  meetings  and  is  divided  into  two 
sections  :  the  Eastern,  with  headquarters  at  London,  Eng- 
land, and  the  Western  (American),  with  headquarters  at 
Philadelphia,  Pa.  The  general  secretary  of  the  Alliance 
is  Rev.  Dr.  George  D.  Mathews,  and  the  American  sec- 
retary, the  Rev.  Dr.  William  Henry  Roberts.  The  Al- 
liance has  held  six  councils,  viz.,  London,  Edinburgh, 
Philadelphia,  Belfast,  Toronto,  and  Glasgow.  The 
seventh  council  is  appointed  to  meet  at  Washington, 
D.  C,  in  October,  1899. 


THE  CHURCH  IN  CANADA  129 


CHAPTER    IX 

THE    PRESBYTERIAN    CHURCH    IN    CANADA 

CANADA  has  peculiarly  strong  claims  upon  the  affec- 
tion of  Presbyterians.  Here,  more  successfully 
than  in  any  other  British  colony,  has  Presbyterianism 
held  its  own  in  the  teeth  of  opposition  and  discourage- 
ment ;  and  here  more  completely  than  in  any  other 
section  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  has  the  dream  of 
Presbyterian  Union  been  realised.  Time  is  marked  in 
the  story  of  the  Canadian  Church  by  the  unions  of  the 
various  branches. 

I.  Planting  of  Presbyterianism. — The  Jirs^  at- 
tempt to  plant  Presbyterianism  on  Canadian  soil  was  made 
at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century-,  when  among  the 
many  French  colonists  who  then  sought  for  fortune  in  the 
**  New  France "  across  the  Atlantic  were  not  a  few 
Huguenots  who  went  in  search  of  freedom  for  their  faith. 
Under  the  favourable  rule  of  Henry  IV.  such  migration 
was  encouraged,  and  so  long  as  the  traditions  of  his  reign 
lasted  the  Huguenot  colonists  prospered.  In  their  pros- 
perity their  religion  shared.  Traders  like  Chauvin  and 
De  Caen,  governors  like  the  De  Monts  and  De  la  Tours, 
used  their  influence  zealously  for  the  advance  of  Pro- 
testantism ;  in  some  cases  too  zealously,  as  when  De 
Caen,  the  acting  governor  of  Quebec,  compelled  the 
Roman  Catholic  sailors  to  attend  the  Huguenot  service. 
But  it  was  not  to  be  through  the  Huguenots  that 
Canadian  Presbyterianism  was  to  be  established.  The 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  which  in  1685  worked 
such  desolation  in  the  home  country,  had  a  like  effect 
upon  the  colonies.  The  Huguenot  colonists  were  driven 
into  exile,  and  Canada  was  handed  over  as  a  spiritual 


130         THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

monopoly  to  the  Jesuits.  More  successful  was  the  Secojtd 
Planting  of  Presbyterianism,  which  took  place  under 
British  auspices  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  seed  on  this  occasion  came  from  Scotland,  and  through 
all  the  later  history  of  the  Canadian  Church  the  Scottish 
characteristics  have  been  well  in  evidence.  As  a  conse- 
quence of  the  territorial  divisions,  which  until  1867  split 
British  North  America  into  a  number  of  distinct  pro- 
vinces, each  with  its  separate  government  and  institutions, 
the  story  of  the  Canadian  Church  is  the  story  of  many 
sections  until  we  arrive  at  quite  recent  years.  But  in 
a  general  survey  of  the  field  these  sectional  Churches  may 
be  grouped  in  two  divisions  : — the  Eastern  Division^ 
embracing  the  Churches  of  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick, 
Prince  Edward  Island,  and  Cape  Breton  Island ;  and  the 
Western  Division^  comprising  the  Churches  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada,  and  all  the  country  to  the  shores  of  the 
Pacific. 

2.  Forming  of  the  Clmrcli  in  the  Eastern 

Provinces. — In  17 13  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  gave  Nova 
Scotia  to  Britain,  and  thereby  opened  a  new  field  for 
British  colonisation.  For  a  considerable  period,  how- 
ever, the  response  was  disappointing,  and  it  was  not 
until  1755,  when  the  incessant  plotting  and  disaffection 
of  the  French  colonists  compelled  the  British  Government 
to  deport  some  seven  thousand  of  them  to  the  southern 
colonies,  that  colonists  of  British  birth  began  to  be 
attracted.  Then,  to  occupy  the  lands  left  vacant,  colonists 
from  the  older  southern  colonies,  from  Scotland,  Eng- 
land, Ireland,  and  the  European  Continent,  arrived  in 
shoals.  The  further  cession,  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in 
1763,  of  "Canada  with  all  its  dependencies"  widened 
the  field  and  increased  the  stream  of  immigration.  In 
1764  no  fewer  than  10,000  settlers  arrived  from  Britain, 
and  of  these,  Nova  Scotia,  the  most  easterly  province, 
absorbed  the  majority.  Among  the  settlers  were  many 
Presbyterians,  the  supply  of  whose  spiritual  wants  became 
a  problem  to  themselves  and  to  the  Home  Churches. 
The  local  Government  in  1758  had  declared  the  English 


THE  CHURCH  IN  CANADA  131 

Liturgy  to  be  "  the  fixed  form  of  worship  for  Nova 
Scotia,"  and  would  do  nothing  for  Presbyterians  beyond 
granting  liberty  of  worship.  Under  these  circumstances 
outside  help  became  a  necessity  for  a  time,  and  from  the 
older  Presbyterian  Churches  some  help  arrived.  The 
Church  in  New  Jersey  sent  the  Rev.  James  Lyon  in  1764  ; 
in  Halifax,  ten  years  later,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Fraser^  a 
Church  of  Scotland  Army  chaplain,  laboured  for  a  time  ; 
but  the  Churches  which  in  those  early  days  really  grappled 
with  the  difficulties,  and  sent  substantial  and  steady  aid, 
were  the  Btirgher  and  Anti-Burgher  Secession  Churches  of 
Scotland.  From  the  Burgher  Synod  came  the  pioneers, 
Daniel  Cock,  David  Smith,  and  Hugh  Graham,  who  in 
1786  organised  the  Presbytery  of  Truro.  From  the 
Anti' Burgher  Synod  csimQ  T>r.  M'Gregor,  Duncan  Ross, 
and  John  Brown,  who  in  1795  formed  the  second 
Presbytery  of  Pictou.  Then  the  Church  of  Scotland 
added  a  few  ministers  to  the  number,  and  as  in  the  New 
World  old  quarrels  died  out  of  mind,  all  three  sections 
came  together,  uniting  in  1817  to  form  the  Synod  of 
Noz'a  Scotia. 

3.  The  Glasgow  Colonial  Society.— Hitherto  the 

Church  of  Scotland  had  helped  only  in  a  desultory  way, 
although  the  great  majority  of  the  Presbyterian  colonists 
were  her  own  children,  but  in  1825  she  awoke  to  a  fuller 
sense  of  her  duty.  The  Glasgotv  Colonial  Society^  which 
was  then  formed,  with  the  patriotic  Scot,  Lord  Dalhousie, 
as  its  patron,  and  Dr.  Burns  of  Paisley  as  its  zealous 
secretary,  had  for  its  object  the  "promoting  the  moral  and 
religious  interests  of  the  Scottish  settlers  in  British  North 
America."  Right  well  it  did  its  work.  With  a  limited 
income,  seldom  exceeding  ;i^500,  it  succeeded  in  sending 
to  the  colonies  forty  ministers  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
within  the  next  ten  years.  In  place  of  being  as  hitherto 
a  small  minority,  the  Church  cf  Scotland  ministers  of  the 
Eastern  Provinces  now  found  themselves  a  body  of 
respectable  size,  and  proceeded  to  form  an  organisation  of 
their  own.  In  1833  the  Synod  of  A^ova  Scotia,  in  con- 
nection with  the  Church  of  Scot  land ,  accordingly  came  into 


132         THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 


existence,  with  its  three  presbyteries  of  HaHfax,  Pictou, 
and  Prince  Edward  Island,  and  rapidly  increased  in 
numbers  and  in  power.  Two  years  later  the  ministers 
in  New  Brunswick  followed  suit,  and  formed  The  Symod 
of  New  Brunswick^  in  connectio7i  with  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land. Between  the  older  Synod,  which  had  now  lost 
its  Church  of  Scotland  relationship,  and  these  younger 
growths  the  best  of  terms  existed.  Approaches  towards 
a  union  were  even  seriously  made,  when  the  troubles 
of  '43  came  on,  scattering  all  such  hopes  for  many  a  year 
to  come. 

4-  Forming  of  the  Church  in  the  Western 

Provinces. — Simultaneously  with  the  rise  of  Presby- 
terianism  in  the  Eastern  Provinces,  a  like  movement  was 
taking  place  in  the  Western,  but  here  the  proportional 
share  taken  by  the  various  Home  Churches  in  the  work 
was  considerably  different.  Ministers  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland  were  first  in  the  field,  though  perhaps  their 
priority  is  more  truly  to  be  ascribed  to  circumstances  than 
:o  express  intention  on  the  Church's  part.  The  fall  of 
Quebec  in  1759,  and  the  subsequent  close  of  the  war,  had 
enabled  the  Rev.  George  Henry,  a  Scots  chaplain,  to  add 
to  his  military  duties  ;  and  in  1 765,  in  a  room  in  the  Jesuit 
College  of  the  city  whose  capture  he  had  witnessed,  he 
gathered  round  him  the  first  Presbyterian  congregation. 
In  1786,  at  the  close  of  the  American  Revolutionary  War, 
the  Rev.  John  Beihune,  chaplain  to  the  84th  regiment,  did 
similar  service  at  Montreal,  where,  with  the  permission  of 
the  Recollet  Fathers,  a  Franciscan  order,  regular  Presby- 
terian services  were  held  in  a  Roman  Catholic  church. 
For  this  most  unusual  kindness  the  good  Franciscans  would 
take  no  money  payment,  but  it  is  recorded  that  they  re- 
ceived from  the  "Society  of  Presbyterians"  a  box  of 
candles  and  two  hogsheads  of  Spanish  wine,  and  "  were 
quite  thankfial  for  the  same."  To  Mr.  Bethune  in  1790 
succeeded  another  Church  of  Scotland  minister,  the  Rev. 
fohn  Yozing,  under  whosi  ministry  was  built  St.  Gabriel 
Street  Church,  the  oldest  Protestant  church  in  the 
Western  Provinces.     But  for  some  time  no  systematic 


THE  CHURCH  IN  CANADA 


133 


effort  was  made  by  any  branch  of  Presbyterian  ism  to 
supply  the  needs  of  the  Protestants,  whose  numbers  in 
Upper  Canada  (or  Ontario)  were  now  rapidly  increasing. 
A  few  Presbyterian  ministers  who  strayed  north  from  the 
Secession  Church  in  the  States  and  from  the  Dutch  and 
German  Reformed  Churches  did  good  work,  but  it  was 
not  until  to  these  were  added  some  additional  ministers 
from  the  Secession  Churches  in  Scotland,  that  it  was 
thought  time  to  form  a  Presbytery.  This  was  done  in 
18 1 8,  when  the  Presbytery  of  the  Canadas  took  shape, 
to  be  reconstituted,  in  1826,  as  the  United  Presbytery  of 
Upper  Canada.  By  that  time,  however,  the  Glasgow 
Colonial  Society  had  been  born,  and  the  Western  Pro- 
vinces now  received  a  large  share  of  its  attention. 
Additional  ministers  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  arrived  in 
increasing  numbers,  so  that  in  1831  there  was  formed  the 
Synod  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Canada  (Church  of 
Scotland)  with  4  presbyteries  and  19  ministers.  Nine 
years  later,  in  1840,  the  two  Presbyterian  organisations 
united,  by  which  time  the  Church  of  Scotland  Synod  had 
increased  to  60  ministers,  and  the  older  but  smaller  body 
to  17.  *•  By  this  step,"  wrote  the  Moderator  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  Synod  to  the  Home  Church,  "we 
have  brought  within  our  pale  17  ministers,  exercising  a 
pastoral  super\asion  over  flocks  that  have  been  collectively 
estimated  at  10,000,  all  professing  adherence  to  our 
standards  of  faith  and  worship."  It  was  a  union  partly 
of  love  and  partly  of  policy.  Scottish  Presbyterianism 
was  called  upon  to  maintain  its  rights,  in  the  face  of  an 
aggrandising  English  Episcopacy ;  and  for  this  a  solid 
front  was  most  desirable. 

5-  Presbytery  versus  Episcopacy.— In  almost 

every  British  colony  where  representatives  of  the  two 
National  Churches  have  met  this  battle  has  had  to  be 
fought.  English  Churchmen,  whose  only  acquaintance 
with  Presbyterianism  has  as  a  rule  been  derived  from 
the  Nonconforming  Presbyterianism  of  England,  have 
been  surprised  when,  in  the  British  colonies,  Scottish 
Churchmen  have  asserted  their  position  as  members  of 


134         THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

one  of  the  National  Churches  of  Britain,  and  claimed 
equal  rights  with  their  English  brethren.  In  the  end  the 
justice  of  the  Scottish  claim  has  always  had  to  be  ad- 
mitted, and,  at  least  partially,  satisfied,  but  in  the  early 
colonial  days  the  fight  for  recognition  was  a  hard  one. 
In  the  Western  Canadian  Pro\4nces  it  was  fought  on  two 
issues,  (i)  The  Clergy  Reserves.  By  an  Act  of  1791, 
the  seventh  part  of  the  unceded  lands  in  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada  was  reserved  "for  the  maintenance  and 
support  of  a  Protestant  clergy."  Three  millions  of  acres 
were  thus  set  aside,  to  which  the  English  Churchmen 
considered  they  had  an  exclusive  claim.  Scottish  Church- 
men, who  thought  they  were  equally  "Protestant  clergy," 
failed  to  see  the  fairness  of  the  English  contention,  and 
in  1 81 7  an  agitation  on  the  subject  began,  which  raged 
for  over  twenty  years.  The  opinion  of  the  home  legal 
authorities  was  given  in  favour  of  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land's claim,  but,  through  the  unwillingness  of  English 
Church  officials,  no  steps  were  taken  to  give  effect  to  the 
decision.  Public  opinion,  however,  was  strongly  on  the 
Scottish  side,  and  ultimately  bore  down  the  opposition. 
In  1840,  two  months  after  the  Presbyterians  had  all 
ranged  themselves  under  the  banner  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  the  exclusive  claims  of  the  English  Church 
were  set  aside,  the  Reserve  Lands  ordered  to  be  sold, 
and  of  the  proceeds  two-thirds  to  be  allotted  to  the 
Church  of  England,  and  one-third  to  the  Synod  in  con- 
nection with  the  Church  of  Scotland.  The  division  was 
manifestly  unfair,  seeing  that  the  Presbyterians  outnum- 
bered the  Episcopalians,  but  the  principle  had  been  ad- 
mitted. (2)  Queeti's  College,  Kingston,  which  for  many 
years  has  held  a  prominent  position  in  Canadian  educa- 
tion, was  the  outcome  of  a  similar  contest.  The  growth 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  had  made  it  necessary  to  pro- 
vide for  the  education  and  training  of  ministers,  and  as 
the  readiest  means  of  accomplishing  this,  an  application 
was  made  to  Government,  in  1832,  to  endow  additional 
chairs  in  connection  with  King's  College,  Toronto,  a 
Government  institution.     But  here  Episcopal  opposition 


THE  CHURCH  IN  CANADA  135 

was  too  strong,  and  King's  College  remained  an  English 
Church  monopoly.  Nothing  daunted,  the  Presbyterians 
set  themselves  to  supply  the  need  without  Government 
assistance,  and  so  great  was  the  enthusiasm  evoked,  that 
in  1 84 1  Queen's  College,  Kingston,  was  opened  and  em- 
powered by  royal  charter  to  confer  degrees. 

6.  Effects  of  '43  on  East  and  West.  — For 

British  Presbyterianism,  whether  of  the  Home  or 
Colonial  Churches,  the  Secession  of  1843  was,  without 
doubt,  the  most  momentous  event  that  had  happened 
since  1690.  Not  in  Scotland  alone,  but  also,  and  to 
quite  as  great  an  extent,  in  the  colonies  did  it  bring 
grievous  heartburnings,  unchristian  strife,  and  hurtful 
division.  The  national  tie  which  binds  Scotsmen 
together  was  never  more  touchingly  shown — and  be 
it  said,  never  more  unfortunately — than  when  one 
after  another  of  the  young  Scottish  Churches  which 
were  springing  up  across  the  seas  took  up  the  home 
quarrels,  and  making  them  their  own,  fought  them  out 
to  the  bitter  end.  Private  patronage  they  knew  not, 
no  invidious  line  with  them  separated  "chapel"  from 
**  parish  "  ministers,  but  they  were  children  of  the  Scottish 
Church  and  had  to  vindicate  their  descent.  In  Canada 
the  wordy  war  was  fought  with  a  keenness  equalling  that 
in  Scotland,  and,  unfortunately  for  hopes  of  a  peaceful 
ending,  deputies  arrived  from  the  seceding  party  at  home 
to  encourage  the  di\nsion.  The  more  moderate  section 
of  the  Canadian  ministers,  of  whom  Dr.  Cook  of  Quebec 
was  the  leader,  would  fain  have  observed  a  strict  neu- 
trality regarding  a  Scottish  quarrel  which  did  not  concern 
them,  but  nothing  would  satisfy  the  party  who  sjon- 
pathised  with  the  Free  Church  save  "to  lift  up  a  full 
and  clear  testimony  for  the  truth."  This  meant  an  ex- 
plicit severing  of  all  connection  with  the  Church  of 
Scotland  and  an  equally  explicit  alliance  with  the  Scottish 
Free  Church.  Between  views  so  opposite  no  compro- 
mise was  possible,  and  in  1844  the  inevitable  result  came 
in  the  rending  in  twain  of  the  three  Church  of  Scotland 
Synods  of  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and  the  Western 


4 

19 

lO 

3 

54 

26 

68 

48 

136  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Provinces  (Canada).  Out  of  116  ministers,  68  remained 
in  connection  with  the  Church  of  Scotland,  48  adopting 
the  cause  of  the  Free  Church  ;  but  in  the  different  Synods 
the  proportions  varied  much,  as  the  following  table 
shows  : — 

Church  of  Scotland.     Free  Church. 
Synod  of  Nova  Scotia   . 
Synod  of  New  Brunswick 
Synod  of  Presb.  Church  in  Canada 


In  Nova  Scotia  the  Church  of  Scotland  had  been 
practically  wiped  out,  in  New  Brunswick  left  with  little 
damage,  and  in  the  Western  Provinces  weakened  by  one- 
third.  Disruption  did  not  immediately  add  to  the  peace 
of  the  Churches,  as  Dr.  Norman  Macleod  found  when  in 
1845  ^6  visited  Canada.  Writing  home  he  said,  "The 
angry  spirit  of  Churchism,  which  has  disturbed  every  fire- 
side in  Scotland,  thunders  at  the  door  of  every  shanty  in 
the  backwoods."  But  the  air  was  cleared  by  the  storm, 
and  the  divided  Churches  settled  down  to  a  period  of 
vigorous  labour. 

7.  Drawing  together. — In  1845,  ^ft^r  the  war  was 
over,  there  were  seven  leading  divisions  of  Presbyterianism 
in  British  North  America — four  in  the  Eastern  Provinces 
and  three  in  the  Western.     These  were  : — 

Eastern  Provinces 

The  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Nova  Scotia  (Old 
Secession  Church). 

The  Synod  of  Nova  Scotia,  adhering  to  Westminster  Stand- 
ards (Free  Church). 

The  Synod  of  New  Brunswick,  in  connection  with  Church 
of  Scotland. 

The  Synod  of  New  Brunswick,  adhering  to  Westminster 
Standards. 

Western  Provinces 

The  Synod  of  Presbyterian  Church  of  Canada,  in  connection 
with  Church  of  Scotland. 


THE  CHURCH  IN  CANADA  137 

The  Synod  of  Free  Presbyterian  Church  of  Canada. 
The   Missionary   Synod   of  Canada,    in   connection   with 
Scottish  Associate  Synod. 

For  fifteen  years  the  separate  existence  continued, 
during  which  period  great  advances  were  made,  notably 
in  the  case  of  the  Churches  allied  with  the  Scottish  Free 
Church,  from  which  came  generous  assistance  both  in 
men  and  money.  Nor  was  the  Church  of  Scotland  back- 
ward, though  in  these  days  her  own  urgent  need  of 
ministers  prevented  her  helping  so  much  as  prior  to  '43. 
But  more  gratifying  even  than  the  development  of  the 
separate  Synods  was  the  softening  of  their  feelings  towards 
one  another.  In  their  practice  they  were  all  at  one  ; 
where  they  differed  was  in  theory,  and  that  on  a  point 
with  which  none  was  immediately  concerned — the  con- 
nection of  Church  and  State.  As  the  memories  of  '43 
faded  away,  the  hurtfulness  of  continued  division  was 
more  openly  admitted,  and  in  i860  there  began  in  con- 
sequence the  succession  of  Unions  which  has  made  the 
Canadian  Church  unique  amongst  her  Presbyterian  sisters. 
In  that  year  the  Free  Church  Synod  of  Nova  Scotia  (35 
ministers)  united  with  the  old  Secession  Synod  (42 
ministers)  and  formed  the  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  the  Lower  Provinces.  In  1861  the  like 
Churches  in  the  Western  Provinces  followed  the  example, 
when  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  (59  ministers) 
joined  with  the  Free  Presbyterian  Church  of  Canada 
(129  ministers)  to  form  the  Canada  Presbyterian  Church. 
In  1866  the  Nova  Scotia  union  was  still  further  enlarged 
by  the  addition  of  the  (Free  Church)  Presbyterian  Church 
of  New  Brunswick.  Two  years  later  (1868)  the  Eastern 
branches  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  caught  the  happy 
infection,  and  the  Synod  of  New  Brunswick  joining  with 
the  Synod  of  Nova  Scotia  (which  had  been  reborn  in 
1854),  there  resulted  the  (Church  of  Scotland)  Synod  of  the 
Maritime  Provinces.  As  the  outcome  of  all  these  unions 
there  were  now  four  compact  Presbyterian  Churches,  two 
in  the  East  and  two  in  the  West,  one  in  each  division 
being  in  connection  with  the  Church  of  Scotland,  while 


138         THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

the  other  represented  the  combined  forces  of  the  Free 
and  United  Presbyterian  Churches.  Finally,  in  1875, 
the  longed-for  goal  was  reached,  when,  with  the  exception 
of  2 1  ministers,  1 9  of  whom  belonged  to  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  all  four  Churches  united  to  form  Th^  Presby- 
terian Church  in  Canada.  On  the  15th  June  1875  the 
supreme  courts  of  the  four  Churches  met  in  the  great 
Victoria  Hall  in  Montreal,  and,  after  the  Moderator  of 
each  had  signed  the  articles  of  union,  the  first  General 
Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada  was  con- 
stituted, with  the  venerable  Dr.  Cook  of  Quebec  as 
Moderator. 

8.    Respective    Contributions.  —  The    uniting 

Churches  did  not  come  empty-handed.  Each  added 
something  to  the  common  store,  which  materially  helped 
to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  union.  From  the  Church. 
of  Scotland  side  came  150  ministers  with  their  charges  ; 
Queen's  College,  Kingston,  which  had  developed  into  a 
flourishing  university,  with  the  four  faculties  of  Arts, 
Medicine,  Law,  and  Theology,  and  was  possessed  of  an 
Endowment  Fund  of  87,000  dollars ;  Morrin  College, 
Quebec,  which  had  been  founded  in  i860  by  Dr.  Joseph 
Morrin  at  a  cost  of  50,000  dollars,  for  the  education  in 
Arts  and  Divinity  of  youths  aspiring  to  the  ministry  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland ;  and  a  Temporalities  Fund  of 
463,000  dollars,  yielding  an  annual  revenue  of  32,000 
dollars  for  the  support  of  the  ministry.  This  last  valuable 
contribution  was  the  result  of  the  commutation  in  1854 
of  the  life  interests  of  the  Scottish  clergy  in  the  Clergy 

Reserves.    From  the  side  of  the  Free  and  Secession 

Churches  came  473  mifiisters  with  their  charges  ;  Knox 
Theological  College,  Toronto,  which  had  been  founded  in 
1844  by  the  Free  Church  party  to  take  the  place  of 
Queen's  College,  and,  after  a  remarkably  successful 
career,  had  been  transferred  in  1875  to  the  present  stately 
buUdings  at  a  cost  of  120,000  dollars;  Montreal  Theo- 
logical College,  with  its  endowment  fund  of  25,000 
dollars  ;  and,  oldest  of  all,  Halifax  Theological  College,  of 
which  the  beginnings  had  been  made  in  1820  by  the 


THE  CHURCH  IN  CANADA  139 

original  Synod  of  Nova  Scotia.  Seldom,  if  ever,  has  a 
Church  of  the  size  of  the  United  Canadian  Church  been 
better  equipped  for  work,  and  never  has  an  equipment 
been  better  utilised.  Rejoicing  in  having  blotted  out  all 
past  differences,  she  took  up  with  enthusiasm  the  various 
schemes  of  her  different  sections,  and  welding  them  into 
a  unity,  has  for  the  past  twenty  years  prosecuted  them 
with  great  success.  All  the  customary  activities  of  a 
living  Church  are  hers,  her  foreign  mission  work  in  the 
South  Seas,  Formosa,  Trinidad,  China,  and  Central  India 
being  notably  successful ;  but  by  geographical  conditions 
she  has  found  herself  called  to  two  special  and  distinctive 
works.  These  are  her  work  among  the  French  Canadian 
Roman  Catholics  and  her  care  for  the  settlers  and  the 
Indian  tribes  in  the  great  North-West. 

9.  Work  among  the  French  Roman  Catholics. 

—  Out  of  the  5,000,000  inhabitants  of  Canada 
2,200,000  are  Roman  Catholics.  Of  these  the  great 
majority  are  massed  in  the  province  of  Quebec,  where 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  enjoys  privileges  such  as  are 
granted  under  no  other  Protestant  government.  They 
are  the  heritage  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  and  of  an  Act  of 
the  Imperial  Parliament  passed  subsequently  and  known 
as  the  Quebec  Act.  These,  by  guaranteeing  to  the  Roman 
Church  the  continuance  of  the  privileges  and  property  she 
then  possessed,  have  given  her  the  prestige  and  emoluments 
of  an  Established  Church.  Tithes  and  ecclesiastical  dues  to 
the  amount  of  10,000,000  dollars  are  annually  levied  and 
employed  in  maintaining  an  ecclesiastical  organisation  of 
23  bishops  and  2352  priests.  Under  such  circumstances 
it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  Pope  should  have 
described  Quebec  as  "the  metropolis  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion  in  America."  It  is  in  truth  the  Rome 
of  the  Western  world.  To  the  State  the  existence  of  so 
large  a  constituency  at  the  beck  of  the  Roman  see  is  a 
continual  anxiety,  but  to  the  Protestant  Churches  of  the 
country,  which  desire  to  maintain  and  advance  the  great 
truths  of  Protestantism,  it  constitutes  an  abiding  summons 
to  evangelise.     The  Presbyterian  Church  has  not  been 


140  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

slow  in  responding.  Prior  to  the  union  of  1875,  evan- 
gelistic efforts  were  engaged  in  by  the  various  branches 
of  Presbyterianism,  and  with  considerable  success,  but 
on  the  accomplishment  of  the  union  more  systematic,  and 
also  more  successful,  endeavours  have  been  made.  In 
this  field  the  chief  labourer  has  been  "  Father  "  Chiniquy, 
originally  a  devoted  Roman  Catholic  priest,  but  since  1862 
an  earnest  Protestant  minister.  Under  his  inspiration 
and  fearless  advocacy,  and  in  the  face  of  bitter  opposi- 
tion, the  work  of  evangelisation  has  greatly  extended  : 
Protestant  schools  for  French  Canadians  have  been 
established,  Protestant  Churches  built,  and  Protestant 
congregations  gathered  together.  As  a  rule  no  missions 
are  less  productive  at  the  present  day  than  Protestant 
Missions  to  Roman  Catholics,  but  those  of  Canada  present 
an  exception.  A  Canadian  commissioner  at  the  Pan- 
Presbyterian  Congress  of  1892  reported  : — "Fifty  years 
ago  there  was  not  a  Protestant  French  Canadian  known 
on  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  Now  in  the  province 
of  Quebec  there  are  at  least  twelve  thousand,  and  twenty 
thousand  have  made  their  homes  in  the  Republic  to  the 
south." 

10.  Work  in  the  North -West   Territory.— 

Until  thirty  years  ago  two-thirds  of  the  great  Canadian 
Dominion  were  uninhabited  and  unknown,  except  to 
wandering  Indian  tribes  and  the  adventurous  hunters 
of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  In  1812,  by  the  kind 
help  of  the  Earl  of  Selkirk,  a  colony  of  Sutherland- 
shire  highlanders  had  been  planted  on  the  banks  of  the 
Red  River,  south  of  Lake  Winnipeg,  and  a  "  godly 
elder,"  Mr.  James  Sutherland,  sent  to  minister  to  them, 
but  that  was  the  furthest  outpost.  Of  the  enormous 
fertile  belt  of  prairie  land  stretching  from  Winnipeg  to 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  containing  200,000,000 
acres  of  fertile  soil,  the  emigrant  world  was  ignorant. 
Now  the  ignorance  has  passed  away,  and  with  the 
completion  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  in  1885 
the  whole  of  the  Great  Western  Territory  has  been 
laid  at  the  feet  of  all  who  will.      In  response  a  steady 


THE  CHURCH  IN  CANADA  141 

annual  stream  of  twenty  to  thirty  thousand  immigrants 
has  flowed  westward,  and  is  causing  Canadian  civilisation 
to  extend  in  an  unusual  manner.  "  Settlement  has 
not  been,  as  in  other  countries,  a  gradual  extension  from 
sea  coast  or  river  bank,  or  from  a  few  great  centres.  It 
has  been  simultaneous  all  over  the  country.  Every  one 
of  the  133  stations  that  mark  the  2000  miles  of 
railway  has  been  a  distributing  point."  A  new  nation 
has  been  born  in  a  decade,  and  by  its  birth  has  presented 
a  peculiar  problem  to  the  Canadian  Churches.  Gradual 
extension  of  their  borders  is  insufficient  for  the  wants  of 
the  widely  scattered  people.  What  is  required  is  an 
equally  simultaneous  supply  of  Christian  ordinances  over 
the  whole  field,  and  in  endeavouring  to  supply  the 
need  the  Presbyterian  Church,  to  which  one-third  of  the 
settlers  belong,  has  done  noble  work.  At  Winnipeg,  when 
the  rush  began,  she  had  already  a  literary  college,  and 
by  adding  a  theological  department  she  at  once  arranged 
for  the  training  of  the  men  required.  At  the  head  of 
the  whole  North-West  work  was  placed  Dr.  Robertson 
of  Winnipeg,  who  has  striven  manfully  to  make  provi- 
sion keep  pace  with  the  growth  of  the  settlement. 
Help  from  the  Eastern  Provinces  has  come  liberally,  as 
also  from  the  older  Churches  of  Scotland  and  Ireland, 
and  the  result  is  seen  in  a  rapidly  growing  Presby- 
terian Church  in  the  great  North-West.  Within  eight 
years  the  communicants  have  risen  from  II53  to 
14,000,  "preaching  points"  from  1 16  to  667,  ministers 
from  28  to  141,  and  the  Christian  liberality  of  the 
territory  from  15,000  to  203,000  dollars.  "For  this 
growth,"  says  Dr.  Robertson,  "we  thank  God  and  take 
courage." 

II.  Comparative  Strength  of  Presbyterian- 
ism. — According  to  the  census  of  1 89 1,  the  numbers  of 
the  three  leading  Protestant  denominations  were  : — 

Methodists  ,  ,  ,  .  .  839,815 
Presbyterians  .....  754.193 
Episcopalirais     .....      646,050 


142         THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

The  Presbyterian  Church  thus  stands  numerically 
second,  but,  as  Dr.  Robertson  said  to  the  Pan- Presby- 
terian Council  at  Toronto,  "second  in  no  other  sense. 
In  public  affairs,  in  trade,  in  commerce  and  manufactures, 
in  educational  and  professional  life,  her  sons  take  first 
rank,  and  what  they  have  they  hold  with  a  tenacious 
grasp  and  hunger  for  more."  Presbyterianism  has  no 
healthier  representative  than  the  Canadian  Church,  nor 
any  whose  future  is  more  hopeful — a  happy  condition  of 
which  the  chief  contributing  cause  has  been  the  Union 
of  1875. 


IN  THE  SOUTHERN  HEMISPHERE       i43 


CHAPTER  X 

THE    PRESBYTERIAN    CHURCH    IN   THE   SOUTHERN 
HEMISPHERE 

AUSTRALIA-NEW   ZeALAND-SoUTH    AFRICA 

T  N  their  wanderings  over  the  world  in  search  of  fortune, 
I  he  children  of  the  P-^^yterian  Churches  have 
travelled  far  south  of  the  equator  and  ^^f^^Jl^^'^^: 
southern  lands-Australia,  NewZealand,  and  South  Africa 
To  these  abiding-places  they  have  been  ^-^'^^l^yj^^l 
Church,  which  has  taken  root  and  grown  with  the  growth 

of  the  colonies. 

I.  Australia 

Australia,  the  great  island  -  continent  of  the  South, 
whi"ze  is  onlf a  little  less  than  the  whole  of  Europe 
rSvided  into  six  distinct  colonies,  each  of  which  m 
Lernment  and   institutions  is  entirely  independent  of 
?he  others      Upon  the  Australian  Churches,  Presbyterian 
i  well  a    others,  this  political  separation  has  imposed 
?^e    necessity    of  a   similar    separation    in   ecclesiastical 
l"and  L  consequence  the  Presbytenan  Church  m 
Australia  has  no  fewer  than  six  sub-divisions.      Ot  these 
however,  two  have  an  acknowledged  pre-eminence,  the 
Churche    of  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria,  masmuch  as 
they  possess  between  them  four-fifths  of  the  total  numbe 
of  communicants.     Their  history,  which    extends   ove 
half  a  century,    falls    naturally  into   three  sections-(i) 
^heir  origin  ;T2)  their  division  after  '43;  and  (3)  their 
reunion  and  subsequent  progress. 
A.    The  Presbyterian  Church  of  New  South  Wales 
I    Planting  of  tlie  Chiireh.-New  South  Wales 
is  t^;  m™ola?;  of  Australia.     It  was  here,  at  Botany 


144         ^^^  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Bay,  to  the  south  of  the  modern  city  of  Sydney,  that  the 
first  colonists  landed  in  1788.  They  were  a  shipload  of 
convicts,  and  for  thirty  years  and  more  the  colony  con- 
tinued to  be  purely  a  penal  settlement,  receiving  its 
additions  from  the  convict  class.  But  with  the  arrival 
of  Sir  Thomas  Brisbane  as  governor  in  1 82 1  a  new  era 
began.  Colonists  of  unstained  reputation  and  industrious 
habits  were  then  induced  to  try  their  fortunes  in  the  new 
country,  and  soon  so  outnumbered  the  older  type  as  to 
entirely  destroy  the  ill-fame  which  had  attached  to  the 
settlement  of  early  days.  Among  the  colonists  were 
many  Scottish  Presbyterians,  but  no  Presbyterian  minister 
arrived  to  minister  to  their  needs  until  1823,  when,  in 
response  to  the  invitation  of  Sir  Thomas  Brisbane  (himself 
an  elder  of  the  Scottish  Church),  there  came  out  from  the 
Presbytery  of  Irvine  the  Rev.  John  Dunmore  Lang,  the 
founder  of  Australian  Presbyterianism.  Dr.  Lang  was  a 
born  pioneer,  a  man  of  marvellously  varied  powers  and  in- 
domitable energy,  of  which  he  soon  gave  evidence.  Two 
years'  residence  and  travel  in  the  colony  gave  him  a 
thorough  grasp  of  the  situation.  Teachers  and  ministers 
were  seen  to  be  urgently  needed,  but  the  usual  method 
of  appealing  to  the  Home  Church  by  letter  was  too  tardy 
for  Dr.  Lang.  Proceeding  home  in  person,  he  brought 
out  in  1826  a  supply  of  teachers  for  the  instruction  of 
the  young,  and,  returning  shortly  afterwards,  came  back 
with  five  ministers,  with  whose  help  he  formed  the 
Presbytery  of  New  South  Wales.  For  these  new  arrivals 
he  then  claimed  the  same  endowments  as  the  Government 
was  in  the  habit  of  giving  to  the  ministers  of  the  Church 
of  England,  and  on  Government  demurring,  the  aid  of 
the  Colonial  Committee  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  was 
invoked,  with  the  desired  result — Scottish  Presbytery 
and  English  Episcopacy  being  recognised  as  equal  in 
the  eye  of  the  State.  A  fourth  visit  to  Scotland  by 
this  indefatigable  pioneer,  in  1836,  resulted  in  nine- 
teen additional  ministers  being  sent  out.  But  by  this 
time,  unfortunately  for  the  welfare  of  the  Church,  Dr. 
Lang's  success  and  somewhat   masterftil   methods   had 


IN  THE  SOUTHERN  HEMISPHERE        145 

aroused  dissatisfaction  in  the  minds  of  his  co-presbyters. 
To  check  what  they  considered  a  dangerous  dictatorship, 
they  insisted  on  a  strict  adherence  to  the  methods  of 
procedure  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  a  course  which  Dr. 
Lang,  with  considerable  reason,  held  to  be  cramping 
the  growth  of  the  Church  in  a  young  colony.  Neither 
party  would  make  concessions,  and  in  1838,  followed  by 
the  majority  of  the  newly-arrived  ministers,  this  founder 
of  the  Church  severed  his  connection  with  the  Presbytery, 
to  form  the  Synod  of  New  South  Wales.  It  was  a  most 
regrettable  division,  but  fortunately,  through  the  growing 
reasonableness  of  the  Presbytery  and  the  mediating  offices 
of  the  Church  at  home,  it  came  to  an  end  in  1840,  when 
ihe  Synod  of  Australia  resulted  from  the  union.  Upon 
Dr.  Lang,  however,  the  trammels  of  regular  procedure 
again  grew  irksome,  and  having  in  the  meantime  become 
dissatisfied  with  the  prevalent  system  of  concurrent  en- 
dowment by  the  Slate  of  all  denominations,  regardless  of 
their  several  teaching,  he  sought  freedom  by  separation, 
and  in  1842  relinquished  his  connection  with  both  Church 
and  State. 

2.  Effects  of  '43. — At  the  meeting  of  the  Synod  in 
1844,  communications  were  received  from  the  Church 
of  Scotland  and  the  Free  Church,  each  requesting  the 
support  of  the  Synod  of  Australia,  and  the  young 
daughter  Church,  just  struggling  into  life,  found  herself 
called  to  consider  her  attitude  towards  the  great  Scottish 
ecclesiastical  schism.  Practically  she  was  independent 
of  both  the  Scottish  Churches.  Her  own  recent  experi- 
ence of  the  evils  of  disunion  made  her  keenly  desirous 
of  avoiding  any  further  division,  and,  in  the  resolu- 
tions adopted,  neutrality  regarding  the  quarrel  of  the 
Home  Churches  was  studiously  maintained.  The  spiritual 
Headship  of  Christ  and  the  independence  of  the 
Australian  Presbyterian  Church  were  emphasised,  but 
to  both  the  contending  Churches  the  hand  of  fellow- 
ship was  extended.  A  wise  and  temperate  policy  it  was, 
but  passions  were  running  too  high  at  home  for  it  to  be 
favourably  received.      To  the  Church  of  Scotland  the 


146         THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

declaration  of  independence  seemed  a  mark  of  disloyalty, 
while  in  the  Assembly  of  the  Free  Church  the  resolutions 
were  ridiculed  by  Dr.  Candlish  as  being  of  the  "  milk  and 
water  "  order — a  phrase  which  rankled  in  the  Australian 
mind  for  long.  The  dependence  of  the  Australian 
Church  on  the  Home  Churches  for  her  ministers  made 
these  Churches  masters  of  the  situation,  and  accordingly, 
with  great  reluctance,  she  found  herself  compelled  to  take 
sides.  In  1846  the  division  came.  Of  22  ministers, 
16  remained  in  the  Synod,  while  6  went  out :  three  to 
form  the  Synod  of  East  Australia  (Free  Church) ;  one, 
the  Rev.  James  Forbes,  to  found  the  Free  Presbytcj-ian 
Church  of  Australia  Felix ;  and  another,  the  Rev.  W. 
Hamilton,  to  begin  what  ultimately  became  the  Mortlake 
Presbytery  of  the  Victorian  Church. 

3.  Reunioil. — Those  were  evil  days  for  the  Presby- 
terian Church  of  New  South  Wales.  Dr.  Lang's 
secession  and  subsequent  zealous  fostering  of  a  voluntary 
Church,  followed  by  the  sad  division  of  1846,  had  brought 
into  the  field  three  small  rival  Churches,  and  when  in 
1 85 1  the  colony  of  Victoria  was  separated  from  New 
South  Wales,  the  three  Church  fragments  were  still  further 
w^eakened  by  the  disjunction  of  their  Victoria  members. 
But  their  very  weakness  proved  a  gain  :  so  forcibly  did 
it  teach  the  need  of  union,  that  in  1865,  after  ten  years 
of  negotiations,  the  three  became  one,  and  gave  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  New  South  Wales  the  strength 
which  comes  from  unity. 

4.  Recent  Progress. — For  a  number  of  years  after 
the  union  the  growth  of  the  Church  was  by  no  means 
proportionate  to  the  increase  in  the  colony's  population. 
Great  difficulty  was  experienced  in  obtaining  sufficient 
ministers  from  home,  and  that  at  a  time  when  the 
development  of  the  colony  was  causing  a  wide  scattering 
of  the  Presbyterian  community.  Fifty  thousand  Presby- 
terians were  dispersed  over  an  area  five  times  the  size 
of  Great  Britain,  and  to  meet  the  necessity  thus  created 
for  a  large  increase  in  the  ministerial  staff  the  Church 
in  sixteen  years  (1866-81)  was  only  able  to  add  thirteen 


IN  THE  SOUTHERN  HEMISPHERE       147 


new  charges.  But  since  1881  the  tide  has  turned.  A 
vigorous  Extension  Movement  then  begun  by  the  Rev. 
J.  M.  Ross  has  doubled  the  strength  of  the  Church, 
which  now  possesses  141  charges,  116  ministers,  and 
10,000  communicants.  Nor  are  the  Scottish  Churches 
any  longer  the  chief  sources  of  her  ministerial  supply, 
although  she  still  gladly  welcomes  suitable  ministers  from 
the  old  country';  but  in  the  well-equipped  Si.  Andrew's 
Presbyterian  College,  which  is  affiliated  with  the  University 
of  Sydney,  she  has  made  good  provision  for  training  her 
own  sons.  It  has  been  a  hard  fight  for  existence,  but 
in  the  fight  the  needs  of  others  have  not  been  forgotten, 
as  is  shown  by  the  earnest  missionary  efforts  which  the 
Church  carries  on  among  the  Chinese  immigrants,  the 
Aborigines,  and  the  South  Sea  Islanders. 

B.   The  Presbyterian  Church  of  Victoria 

I.  Origin.— The  Church  of  Victoria,  which  is  now 
by  far  the  most  powerful  of  the  Presbyterian  Churches  of 
Australia,  originated  as  an  outpost  of  the  Church  of  New 
South  Wales.  Settlers  from  the  mother  colony  had 
migrated  south  to  Port  Philip,  the  early  Melbourne, 
in  1834,  and  as  their  numbers  increased,  the  Presby- 
terians amongst  them  bethought  them  of  their  lack  of 
religious  ordinances,  and  applied  to  the  Presbytery  of 
New  South  Wales  to  supply  them  with  a  minister.  But 
ere  their  request  could  be  granted  help  came  firom 
another  source.  The  Rev.  James  Clow,  a  retired  East 
Indian  chaplain  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  hearing  of 
the  attractions  of  Australia  as  a  residence,  came  from 
Bombay  in  1837,  and  settling  in  the  rising  township  of 
Melbourne,  began  to  hold  services  for  the  Presbyterians. 
It  was  a  work  of  love  which  was  much  appreciated  by 
his  countrymen,  and  when,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
following  year,  the  minister  who  had  been  applied  for 
came  from  New  South  Wales,  he  found  a  congregation 
ready  to  his  hand.  The  new  arrival  was  the  Rcxk  James 
Forbes,  a    licentiate.  qC   the    Presbytery  of  Garioch,   ir^ 


143  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Aberdeenshire,  and  an  earnest  worker.  Four  others 
soon  followed,  leading  to  the  erection  in  1842  of  the 
Presbytery  of  Melbourne^  under  the  S)mod  of  New  South 
Wales. 

2.  Effects  of  '43. — Of  the  ministers  who  cast  in 
their  lot  with  the  Free  Church,  at  the  meeting  of  the 
Synod  of  New  South  Wales  in  1846,  Mr.  Forbes  was 
one  ;  and  accordingly,  on  his  return  to  Melbourne,  he 
immediately  vacated  his  pastorate  of  the  Scots  Church, 
voluntarily  surrendering  his  allowance  from  the  State,  and 
set  himself  to  organise  the  Free  Presbyterian  C/mrch  of 
Australia  Felix.  Many  of  his  congregation  rallied  round 
him,  building  for  him  John  Knox  Church,  and  generously 
supporting  him  till  his  death  in  185 1.  In  the  Scots 
Church  his  place  was  taken  by  the  Rev.  Irvine  Hether- 
ington,  an  able  Churchman,  who  did  much  to  influence 
the  later  ecclesiastical  developments.  With  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  colony  (from  a  population  of  177  in  1836 
to  77,000  in  1 851),  more  ministers  were  required,  and 
through  the  good  offices  of  the  three  Home  Churches, 
notably  the  Free  Church  and  United  Presbyterian,  these 
were  supplied;  so  that  in  1851,  when  the  colony  began 
an  independent  existence,  there  were  three  Presbyterian 
organisations  in  existence. 

3.  Union. — The  year  1851  was  an  eventful  one  for 
Victoria.  Gold  was  discovered  at  Ballarat,  and  at  once 
the  "gold  fever"  began  to  rage.  From  the  adjacent 
colonies,  from  Britain,  from  America,  and  elsewhere 
immigrants  arrived  in  thousands,  all  thirsting  for  gold. 
In  three  years  the  population  had  risen  from  77,000  to 
236,000,  and  still  the  stream  flowed  on.  To  the  colony 
the  unprecedented  growth  brought  prosperity  j  to  the 
Presbyterian  Churches  it  brought  wisdom.  In  the  face 
of  such  a  vast  population,  the  sin  as  well  as  the  folly  of 
three  Presbyterian  Churches  forming  rival  congregations 
in  a  few  towns,  and  thereby  lessening  the  strength  avail- 
able for  the  extending  field,  grew  so  evident  that 
negotiations  for  union  were  commenced.  Weary  these 
negotiations  were,  seven  years  having  to  pass  away  before 


IN  THE  SOUTHERN  HEMISPHERE        149 

they  were  completed;  but  at  last,  in  1859,  the  Synods 
surrendered  their  independent  existence,  and  the  First 
General  Assembly  of  the  Victorian  Church  was  constituted, 
under  the  moderatorship  of  the  venerable  James  Clow. 
A  few  Free  Church  ministers  held  aloof  for  a  time,  as 
did  also  some  of  the  United  Presbyterians,  but  the  wise 
counsels  of  the  Free  Church  at  home  in  the  one  case,  and 
the  total  abolition  of  state  aid  in  1870  in  the  other,  did 
away  with  all  scruples,  and  permitted  of  complete  unity 
being  attained.  In  her  constitution  the  united  Church 
is  modelled  on  the  old  Scottish  lines,  but  with  two 
peculiarities.  As  befits  a  Church  as  yet  but  small,  the 
Assembly  is  not  a  representative  body,  but  a  gathering 
of  all  the  Presbyteries  ;  and  Synods  are  wanting.  "  Let 
there  be  no  Synods,"  said  Mr.  Hetherington,  **  I  am  sick 
of  the  name.  I  have  witnessed  six  disruptions,  and  each 
fragment,  however  diminutive,  has  called  itself  a  Synod. 
Now  that  we  have  happily  got  together  in  one  compact 
Church,  let  us  assume  the  higher  designation  of  the 
General  Assembly." 

4.  Eecent  Progress. — The  union  has  been  attended 
with  remarkable  progress  in  almost  every  department  of 
the  Church's  life.  The  old  wooden,  barn-like  buildings 
formerly  used  for  divine  service  have  given  place  in  all 
the  large  towns  to  stately  churches,  the  Scots  Church  in 
Melbourne  especially  being  a  model  of  ecclesiastical  archi- 
tecture. A  great  Presbyterian  institution,  the  Ormond 
College^  named  after  the  chief  benefactor,  whose  gifts 
amounted  to  ;^85,ooo,  has  been  established  for  the  higher 
education  of  the  youth,  and  affiliated  with  the  University 
of  Melbourne,  while  in  one  wing  of  the  college  is  located 
the  Theological  Hall,  whose  endowment  amounts  to 
;^32,ooo.  Home  Mission  work  and  Missions  to  the 
heathen  Aborigines,  Chinese  immigrants,  and  South  Sea 
Islanders  are  receiving  steady  attention,  and  with  good 
results,  most  notable  being  the  apostolic  work  of  the 
Church's  veteran  missionary,  Dr.  Paton.  In  numbers 
the  Presbyterian  Church,  with  her  210  ministers  and 
22,402  communicants,  ranks  third  of  the  churches  of 


I50  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Victoria,  as  is  the  case  in  all  the  Australian  colonies ;  but 
"in  character,  intelligence,  and  public  influence,"  her 
sons  claim  that  she  is  surpassed  by  none. 

C.   The  Federal  Union  of  the  Presbyterian  Churches 
of  Australia  and  Tasmania 

The  remaining  fifth  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
membership  in  Australia,  which  numbers  6854,  is  distri- 
buted among  the  young  Churches  of  the  four  other 
colonies — Queensland,  West  Australia,  South  Australia, 
and  Tasmania.  With  these  Churches  it  is  still  the  day 
of  small  things  and  hard  striving,  though  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  a  like  prosperity  awaits  them  when  the 
tide  of  immigration  and  success  shall  have  overflowed 
their  respective  colonies.  In  the  meantime,  that  the 
Church  of  Australia  may  fulfil  her  calling  better  in  the 
present,  and  be  more  thoroughly  ready  to  respond  to 
any  sudden  demand  in  the  time  to  come,  all  her  branches 
are  drawing  together.  Of  this  the  most  apparent  sign 
was  the  formation  in  1886  of  a  Federal  Union,  which 
meets  as  an  annual  Federal  Assembly.  No  authority  is 
possessed  by  the  Union  over  the  various  Churches,  but 
by  bringing  all  into  line,  and  securing  an  increased 
uniformity,  it  affords  a  clear  omen  of  what  is  to  be,  and 
has,  in  addition,  done  valuable  service  in  emphasising 
the  opinion  on  important  public  questions  of  the  40,000 
communicants  whom  it  represents. 

II.  The  Presbyterian  Church  in  New  Zealand 

Partly  through  geographical  conditions  and  partly 
through  circumstances  connected  with  the  arrival  of  the 
early  colonists,  Presbyterianism  in  New  Zealand  is  repre- 
sented by  two  distinct  Churches — \h^  Presbyterian  Omrch 
of  New  Zealand,  extending  over  the  North  Island  and 
the  northern  half  of  the  South  Island ;  and  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Otago  and  Southland,  confined  to  the  southern 
half  of  South  Island. 


IN  THE  SOUTHERN  HEMISPHERE        i^x 

I.  The  Presbyterian  Church  of  New  Zealand, 

the  older,  and  territorially  as  well  as  ministerially  the 
larger,  but  numerically  the  smaller,  owes  its  beginning 
to  the  Church  of  Scotland.  In  1840,  when  the  colony 
of  New  Zealand  was  established  by  royal  charter, 
2000  emigrants  sailed  for  the  New  Britain,  and  landed 
at  Port  Nicholson,  the  south  point  of  North  Island. 
Amongst  them  were  many  Scots,  with  whom  had 
gone  as  spiritual  leader  the  Rev.  Mr.  APFarlane  of 
Martyrs'  Church,  Paisley.  The  majority  settled  at 
Wellington,  and  there  Mr.  M'Farlane  began  his  work, 
making  it  a  centre  for  diligent  itineration  among  the 
many  smaller  settlements  up  and  down  the  coast,  and 
in  this  manner  preparing  the  way  for  the  ministers 
who  followed.  Of  these  the  majority  were  at  first 
from  the  Church  of  Scotland,  which  from  that  day 
until  the  present  has  never  withdrawn  her  helping  hand 
from  this  part  of  the  field.  Soon,  however,  the  other 
Scottish  Churches  and  the  Irish  Church  lent  their  assist- 
ance, so  that  in  1856  it  was  possible  to  form  at  Auckland 
the  first  Presbytery  of  the  Church.  Within  the  next 
six  years  other  five  were  added,  and  now  the  number 
has  grown  to  eight.  To  the  Church's  development  the 
chief  hindrance  from  the  very  beginning  lay  in  the  very 
scattered  nature  of  her  field.  Presbyterians  were  not 
massed  together  in  a  compact  body,  as  was  the  case  in 
Otago,  but  were  dispersed  in  a  number  of  small  groups 
throughout  the  island,  too  small  to  support  a  permanent 
minister,  and  often  too  little  known  to  secure  a  visit 
from  an  itinerating  one.  To  grapple  with  the  difficulty, 
and  if  possible  prevent  her  children  from  drifting  away, 
the  Church  in  1877  resolved  upon  a  step  then  as  novel 
as  it  was  desirable,  and  appointed  a  prominent  minister 
as  Home  Mission  Agent,  to  visit  the  various  districts, 
organise  congregations  in  the  outlying  localities,  and 
generally  arrange  for  the  welfare  of  the  scattered  Presby- 
terians. So  thoroughly  did  the  Home  Churches  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland  approve  of  the  plan,  that  they  each 
gave  an  annual  grant  of  ^i  50  towards  the  Agent's  salary, 


152  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

and,  fortunately  for  the  scheme's  success,  an  admirable 
agent  was  found  in  the  Rev.  David  Bruce  of  St.  Andrews, 
Auckland.  Through  his  exertions  the  Home  Mission 
work,  which  is  of  all  work  the  most  important  for  a 
young  Colonial  Church,  went  steadily  forward,  and 
continues  so  to  do.  The  Church  now  possesses  88 
ministers,  156  congregations,  and  8149  communicants. 

2.  The  Presbyterian  Clmrcli  of  Otago  and 

Soutllland,  which  is  the  more  numerous  as  well  as  the 
more  prosperous  of  the  two,  supplies  in  her  origin  a 
striking  illustration  of  the  combination  of  religion  with 
practical  shrewdness,  which  is  said  to  be  characteristic  of 
the  Scottish  people.  It  happened  that  shortly  after  '43, 
when  the  enthusiasm  and  rugged  determination  then 
being  shown  by  the  Free  Church  laity  was  attracting 
universal  attention,  the  New  Zealand  Company  was  on 
the  outlook  for  a  better  type  of  colonists  than  it  had 
hitherto  procured.  To  the  directors  of  the  Company 
these  Scottish  Free  Churchmen  seemed  just  the  stamp 
of  men  they  wanted.  Proposals  were  accordingly  laid 
before  some  prominent  Free  Church  laymen  in  Scotland, 
which  embodied  great  inducements  to  good  settlers  ;  the 
Free  Church  Assembly  signified  its  approval,  and  soon 
the  scheme  of  establishing  a  model  religious  colony  in 
the  Scotland  of  the  far  south  was  fairly  floated.  Otago 
was  secured  as  the  scene  of  the  experiment,  and  in 
March  1848  there  arrived  at  Dimedin  (or  New  Edinburgh, 
as  they  first  named  it)  236  Free  Church  emigrants, 
with  the  Rev,  T,  Burns,  a  nephew  of  the  poet,  as  their 
minister.  Within  six  months  a  humble  church  had  been 
erected  and  the  colony's  progress  fairly  begun.  Steady 
increase  in  population  and  prosperity  marked  the  succeed- 
ing years,  and  as  the  Free  Church  at  home  showed  a 
kindly  care  in  sending  out  additional  ministers,  it  became 
possible  in  1854  to  form  the  first  Presbytery  of  the 
Church  of  Otago,  with  three  ministers  and  two  elders. 
Up  to  1 86 1  the  even  development  of  the  colony,  and  the 
markedly  religious  character  of  the  colonists,  was  well 
maintained,  but  in  that  year  a  change  began.      Gold  was 


IN  THE  SOUTHERN  HEMISPHERE        153 

discovered  at  Tuapeka,  sixty  miles  from  Dunedin,  and  as 
had  happened  in  Australia,  so  now  in  Otago,  a  rush  of 
modern  life,  with  all  its  energy  and  restlessness  and  sin, 
invaded  the  colony.  To  the  duties  thrust  upon  her  the 
Church  responded  well.  Appeals  for  additional  ministers 
were  immediately  sent  home,  and,  until  such  time  as  help 
could  arrive,  regular  visitation  of  the  goldfields  was 
undertaken  in  rotation  by  the  colony's  ministers.  ' '  Canvas 
churches  "  were  set  up,  and  everything  possible  done  to 
foster  good  living  and  true  religion.  Since  these  stirring 
times,  rapid  growth  in  her  membership,  extension  of  her 
field,  and  additions  to  her  wealth  and  institutions  have 
been  the  Church's  lot.  To  the  University  of  Dunedin 
she  has  added  r'l -ee  professorial  chairs,  besides  providing 
a  Theological  Hall  for  the  training  of  her  own  ministry. 
And  though  Otago  is  no  longer  the  Presbyterian  preserve 
which  once  it  was,  the  Presbyterian  Church,  with  her  78 
ministers,  150  congregations,  and  11,000  communicants, 
still  easily  holds  the  first  place. 

3.  Attempts  at  Union. — The  existence  of  these 
two  sister  Churches  side  by  side,  holding  the  same 
doctrines  and  ruled  by  the  same  Constitution,  has 
repeatedly  suggested  the  ad\asability  of  union,  and  for 
one  brief  year  this  was  actually  achieved.  Through  the 
efforts  of  Mr.  Bruce  of  Auckland  and  Dr.  Stuart  of 
Dunedin,  a  conference  of  the  ministers  of  both  Churches 
met  in  Dunedin  in  1861,  when  so  unanimous  was  the 
feeling  in  favour  of  union,  that  Articles  were  framed  and 
a  Convocation  of  the  Churches  summoned  to  meet  at 
Auckland  in  the  following  year.  Duly  the  Convocation 
met,  ratified  the  Articles,  and  constituted  the  first  General 
Assembly  of  the  New  Zealand  Church.  But  in  ratifying 
the  Articles  a  slight  change  had  been  introduced,  which 
worked  grievous  harm.  To  the  original  Articles  of  the 
Dunedin  Conference,  which  adopted  the  old  doctrinal 
and  historical  standards  of  the  Scottish  Church,  the 
Auckland  Convocation  added  the  words,  "only  in  so 
far  as  they  are  applicable  to  the  circumstances  of  this 
Church."      A  judicious  change  it  seemed,  but  to  the 


154         THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Otago  Church  it  appeared  to  open  the  door  to  innova- 
tions, and  the  fear  was  accentuated  by  the  further  action 
of  the  Assem-bly  in  recommending  the  adoption  of  a 
hymn  -  book,  declaring  instrumental  music  an  open 
question,  and  sanctioning  the  use  of  manuals  of  service. 
The  Church  of  the  North  became  dangerous  in  the  eyes 
of  the  Church  of  the  South,  and  despite  the  support  of 
men  like  Dr.  Stuart,  the  leading  minister  of  the  Otago 
Church,  the  union  had  to  be  dissolved.  In  1865  a 
**  Union  of  Co-operation,"  which  meant  nothing,  was 
substituted  for  the  union  of  incorporation.  Twice  since 
then  have  renewed  attempts  been  made,  once  in  1870 
and  again  in  188 1,  but  after  four  years  of  discussion  the 
project  had  again  to  be  abandoned.  Every  possible 
concession  was  made  by  the  Church  of  the  North,  and, 
as  Mr.  Ross,  the  historian  of  the  Otago  Church,  admits, 
*'  with  rare  magnanimity  it  agreed  to  every  proposal 
that  was  made,  and  to  crown  all  consented  to  allow 
Dunedin  to  be  made  the  headquarters  of  the  united 
Church."  But  all  was  in  vain,  and  though  signs  are  not 
wanting  of  a  growing  understanding,  the  two  Churches 
still  continue  apart. 

III.  South  Africa 
I.  The   Dutch  Reformed   Church   of  South 

Africa  owns  a  different  genealog)',  and  boasts  a  greater 
age,  as  well  as  a  more  numerous  membership,  than  her 
Australasian  sisters,  but  it  cannot  be  said  of  her  that 
in  her  age  her  honour  lies.  Her  best  days  have  come 
last.  Originating  in  1652,  when  the  earliest  Dutch 
colonists  landed  at  Table  Bay,  her  ecclesiastical  history 
for  the  first  century  and  a  half  is  almost  a  blank  ;  and 
yet  there  was  no  lack  of  possibilities  in  that  long  period. 
A  large  influx  of  fugitive  French  Huguenots,  in  the  end 
of  the  seventeenth  centur)',  brought  a  healthy  strain  into 
the  somewhat  dull  ecclesiastical  life,  and  an  ample  field  for 
extension  was  offered  by  the  steady  immigration  of  Dutch 
settlers,  which  by  the  year  1 800  had  raised  the  popula- 


IN  THE  SOUTHERN  HEMISPHERE       155 

tion  to  over  20,000.  But  in  spite  of  the  French  infusion 
and  increased  population,  there  were  then  only  10  ministers 
in  the  whole  field,  these  being  Government  chaplains  sent 
out  by  the  State. 

2.  Century  of  Progress.— In  1806  Cape  Colony 
came  under  British  rule,  and  for  the  Reformed  Church  a 
healthier  epoch  commenced.  Two  years  prior  to  the 
British  occupation  there  had  been  signs  of  better  days, 
the  Church  being  granted  a  Constitution  which  per- 
mitted an  Assembly  to  be  held,  although,  true  to  the 
Dutch  traditions,  the  sanction  of  Government  was  required 
for  the  legality  of  the  Assembly's  decisions.  But  under 
the  British  Government  the  Church  received  greater 
benefits  than  these.  Recognising  the  great  need  of 
additional  chaplains  or  ministers  for  the  increasing  popu- 
lation, the  Government  made  application  to  the  Church 
of  Scotland  for  supplies.  Eleven  ministers  were  accord- 
ingly sent  out  in  1822,  and  as  the  result  of  this  new 
blood  there  was  formed  in  1824  a  Synod  or  General 
Assembly,  whose  meetings  were  to  be  quinquennial.  To 
the  new  ministers,  however,  who  had  been  trained  in  the 
ways  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  were  strong  in  their 
adherence  to  the  old  Scottish  principle  of  the  spiritual 
independence  of  the  Church,  the  supervision  of  Govern- 
ment imposed  by  the  Dutch  law  of  1 804  proved  irksome  ; 
and  after  agitating  for  some  years,  the  obnoxious  principle 
in  1843  was  repealed,  the  Church,  though  continuing  to 
be  supported  by  the  State,  being  declared  to  be  free  from 
State  control  in  spiritual  things.  The  State  support 
continued  until  1875,  when  it  was  abolished. 

3.  Boer  Migration.— Prior  to  1834  the  white 
population  of  South  Africa  was  confined  to  Cape  Colony, 
but  in  that  year  a  growing  antagonism  between  the  Boers 
(or  Dutch  farmers)  and  the  British  rulers  led  to  a  great 
"trek"  or  migration  of  10,000  Boers,  with  all  their 
belongings,  out  of  the  colony  into  the  territory  now 
known  as  the  Orange  Free  State.  In  1837  a  similar 
"trek"  took  place  into  Natal,  from  which  in  1842  yet 
another  Boer  "  trek  "  crossed  the  Vaal  river  and  founded 


156         THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

the  Transvaal  Reptiblic.  By  these  Boer  migrations  the 
Reformed  Church  has  become  divided  into  territorial 
sections,  the  largest  being  the  Church  of  Cape  Colony ^ 
which  possesses  82,788  communicants  and  109  ministers, 
while  the  aggregate  membership  amounts  to  130,000. 
In  their  government  and  manner  of  life  the  various 
sections  are  completely  at  one,  while  one  Theological 
Seminary — that  at  Stellenbosch — trains  the  ministers  for 
all.  Dutch  standards  and  Dutch  liturgies  supply  the  creed 
and  service  of  the  Church,  and  thoroughly  Dutch  too 
is  the  quiet  even  life  of  the  congregations.  "  The  feature 
of  Boer  society,"  says  the  author  of  Our  South  African 
Empire,  "is  a  patriarchal  conservatism,  in  accordance 
with  which  the  principles  of  Church  and  State  are  strictly 
maintained.  To  be  a  Land-drost  (magistrate)  or  a  Church 
elder  are  the  objects  of  the  Boer's  earthly  ambition." 

4.  Scottish  Presbyterianism. — Existing  in  South 

Africa,  apart  from  the  Dutch  Church  and  to  a  great 
extent  from  each  other,  are  some  twenty  to  thirty  congre- 
gations of  English-speaking  Presbyterians.  In  their 
membership  they  are  mostly  composed  of  Scottish  settlers, 
and  for  their  ministers  have  Scottish  Churchmen  drawn 
from  the  various  Churches  in  Scotland.  Help  in  men 
and  money  has  from  time  to  time  been  given  by  the 
mother  Churches,  though  not  perhaps  so  freely  as  the 
case  required,  but  the  lack  of  any  definite  ecclesiastical 
connection  has  hitherto  prevented  the  development  of 
these  isolated  fragments.  Now  there  are  signs  of  better 
days,  as  a  movement  towards  a  union  amongst  themselves 
is  fast  approaching  completion. 


THE  CATHOLIC  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH     157 


CHAPTER   XI 

THE   CATHOLIC    PRESBYTERIAN    CHURCH 

ON  3rd  July  1877  a  notable  congregation  assembled 
in  St.  Giles'  Cathedral,  Edinburgh.  Representa- 
tives from  all  the  many  branches  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  throughout  the  world  had  there  gathered  to  take 
part  in  the  opening  service  of  the  First  Oecumenical 
Council  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  Quadrennially  since 
then  have  similar  councils  met,  on  each  occasion  at  a 
different  centre  of  Protestantism — Philadelphia,  Belfast, 
London,  and  Toronto — and  have  done  for  Presbyterianism 
in  visible  form  what  the  preceding  pages  have  sought  to 
do  in  written  word.  They  have  exhibited  the  place 
which  Presbyterianism  occupies  in  Christendom ;  have 
emphasised  the  existence  of  a  Catholic  Presbyterian 
Church,  whose  branches  reach  to  the  ends  of  the  world  ; 
have  comforted  the  hearts  and  strengthened  the  hands  of 
many  weak  and  isolated  churches,  by  the  sight  of  the 
great  brotherhood  to  which  they  belong  ;  and  by  drawing 
representatives,  as  they  have  done,  from  many  branches, 
each  suggesting  a  different  history  and  exhibiting  different 
graces,  they  have  brought  to  view  the  various  factors  in  the 
past  and  in  the  present  which  make  up  the  power  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church. 

I.  The  Church's  Catholicity  of  Range.— WTiat 

makes  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  to-day  unique  among 
Protestant  Churches  is  the  catholicity  of  her  range.  Of 
the  three  great  Churches  of  the  Reformation  —  the 
Lutheran,  the  Anglican,  and  the  Presbyterian, — while  all 
have  greatly  grown  and  developed  since  their  breach  with 
Rome,  the  two  former  have  in  their  progress  kept  strictly 
to  national  lines,  their  expaosioa  having  been  conditioned 


158         THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

by  the  expansion  of  the  German  and  EngHsh  nations. 
Presbyterianism,  on  the  contrary,  from  the  days  of  Cahdn, 
has  refused  to  be  limited  by  any  national  boundary  line, 
and,  becoming  the  ecclesiastical  polity  of  many  nations, 
has  taken  its  place  as  a  Church  of  Christendom,  whose 
Catholicity  is  only  second  to  that  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 
"  It  is  a  simple  historical  fact  of  deep  significance,"  says 
Professor  Heron  of  Belfast,  ' '  that  wherever  the  Reforma- 
tion had  free  course,  wherever  it  was  permitted  to  shape 
itself  spontaneously  after  Scripture,  and  without  external 
interference,  it  assumed  a  Presbyterian  form."  Nor  has 
the  tendency  or  its  significance  now  ceased.  Among  the 
young  Protestant  Churches  of  native  growth  to-day,  which 
are  struggling  into  life  amid  the  Romanism  of  Southern 
Europe,  the  Mohammedanism  of  Western  Asia,  the 
superstitions  of  Brazil,  or  the  heathenism  of  Japan,  the 
same  process  is  going  on.  As  soon  as  the  initial  stage 
of  Congregationalism  is  outgrown  there  begins  the  group- 
ing into  Presbyteries,  which  marks  a  further  extension  of 
the  Catholic  Presbyterian  Church. 

2.  The  Church's  Numerical  Strength.— In  the 

foregoing  survey  of  Presbyterianism  all  the  leading  Pres- 
byterian Churches  have  found  a  place,  but  in  estimating 
the  total  strength  of  the  Church,  account  has  to  be  taken 
of  the  contributions  from  the  many  minor  branches  which 
have  had  to  be  omitted  from  the  general  sketch,  and 
which,  though  individually  small,  bulk  large  in  combina- 
tion. Of  organised  branches  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
there  are  in  all  89,  possessing  an  aggregate  membership  of 
4,823,416.  When  to  these  are  added  the  10,000  Presby- 
terians who  are  found  in  isolated  congregations  through- 
out the  world,  the  care  chiefly  of  the  Scottish  Churches, 
and  the  55,000  communicants  who  have  been  won  from 
heathenism  by  the  Church's  army  of  1000  missionaries, 
the  total  i7ie77ibership  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  stands 
at  4,888,416.  It  is  a  moderate  estimate,  and  one 
founded  on  an  accurate  knowledge  of  Presbyterian  ways, 
which  considers  this  large  communicants'  roll  to  repre- 
sent a  total  Presbyterian  connection  of  28,000,000  souls. 


THE  CATHOLIC  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH    159 

The  Presbyterian  Church  is  thus  most  probably  the 
largest  branch  of  Protestantism  ;  the  Anglican  Church 
and  the  Methodist  Church  (if  the  two  very  distinct 
Methodist  Churches  of  England  and  America,  Wesleyan 
and  Episcopal,  may  be  counted  as  one)  coming  close 
behind,  each  with  20,000,000  adherents. 

3.  The  Church's  Services  in  the  Past. — Since 

the  days  of  the  Reformation,  the  centre  of  Presbyterian 
life  has  shifted  from  the  Continent  of  Europe  to  the 
countries  peopled  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  ;  but  the  roll- 
call  of  the  great  Council  of  the  Church,  including  as  it 
does  the  names  of  the  older  Churches  of  Bohemia, 
Hungary,  Geneva,  France,  and  Holland,  acts  as  a  timely 
reminder  of  the  services  rendered  to  humanity  in  the 
past  by  the  Churches  which  then  guarded  the  truths  of 
Calvinism.  In  the  stirring  times  which  followed  the 
outburst  of  the  Reformation,  the  Presbyterian  Churches, 
when  fighting  for  their  own  existence  against  secular 
despotism  and  ecclesiastical  tyranny,  were  fighting  for 
the  rights  of  man.  Their  Calvinistic  Creed,  emphasising 
as  it  did  the  equality  of  all  men  in  the  sight  of  God,  and 
the  responsibility  of  each  man  to  his  Maker,  was  first 
embodied  in  an  ecclesiastical  system,  but  soon  of  necessity 
affected  men's  civil  relationships.  \Vherever  ecclesiastical 
usages  conflicted  with  these  inborn  rights,  or  secular  power 
repressed  the  freedom  of  the  conscience,  and  no  redress 
could  be  obtained  save  by  the  sword,  the  hands  most 
vigorous  in  the  wielding  of  it  were  those  of  Calvinistic 
Presbyterians.  In  France,  in  Hungary,  in  Holland,  in 
Scotland,  and,  at  a  later  stage,  in  America,  the  same 
spectacle  is  to  be  seen.  It  is  the  Calvinists  who  are  ever 
foremost  in  the  battle  for  freedom,  whether  of  Church  or 
State.  Nor  is  England  any  real  exception,  for,  though 
Episcopacy  be  the  Church  system  there  now  prevailing, 
in  the  days  when  the  battle  for  freedom  had  to  be  fought 
Calvinism  was  the  dominant  creed.  "Calvinists,"  says 
Canon  Perry,  "were  the  main  body  of  the  Elizabethan 
Bishops  in  doctrine,  and  inclined  to  Presbyterianism 
in  principle."  And  Calvinists,  too,  as  Froude  has 
ID  a 


i6o  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

abundantly  shown  in  his  last  book,  The  English  Seamen  of 
the  Sixteenth  Century,  were  the  gallant  sailors  of  the  South 
who  put  to  flight  the  great  Armada  of  Spain.  It  has  not 
been  left  to  Presbyterians  to  record  the  services  to  the 
cause  of  human  liberty  which  the  kinsmen  of  their  faith 
have  rendered.  Witnesses  of  other  Churches  have  vaed 
with  each  other  in  acknowledging  their  common  debt. 
It  is  Froude,  an  Anglican,  who  says,  "^^^latever  was  the 
cause,  the  Calvinists  were  the  only  fighting  Protestants. 
It  was  they  whose  faith  gave  them  courage  to  stand  up 
for  the  Reformation,  and  but  for  them  the  Reformation 
would  have  been  crushed."  It  is  Mr.  Morley,  an  agnostic, 
who  writes,  "To  omit  Calvin  from  the  forces  of  western 
evolution  is  to  read  histoiy  with  one  eye  shut  "  ;  and  who 
quotes  with  thorough  approval  the  weighty  words  of 
Mark  Pattison,  again  not  a  Presbyterian  but  an  Anglican, 
**  The  policy  of  Cahnn  was  a  vigorous  effort  to  supply 
what  the  revolutionaiy  movement  wanted — a  positive 
education  of  the  individual  soul.  The  power  thus 
generated  was  too  expansive  to  be  confined  to  Geneva. 
It  went  forth  into  all  countries.  From  every  part  of 
Protestant  Europe  eager  hearts  flocked  hither  to  catch 
something  of  the  inspiration.  This  and  this  alone 
enabled  the  Reformation  to  make  head  against  the  terrible 
repressive  forces  brought  to  bear  by  Spain,  the  Inquisi- 
tion and  the  Jesuits.  Sparta  against  Persia  was  not  such 
odds  as  Geneva  against  Spain.     Calvinisf7i  saved  Europe. " 

4.  The  Church's  Fitness  for  the  Present.— The 

present  century  is  witnessing  the  increasing  triumph  of 
the  principles  for  which  Calvinism  contended  in  the  past ; 
and  accordingly,  if  the  usefulness  of  a  Church  be  in  any 
way  dependent  on  her  sympathy  with  the  ruling  ideas  and 
institutions  of  the  time,  the  Presbyterian  Church  should 
be  peculiarly  fitted  for  ministering  to  modern  life.  The 
two  principles  which  are  most  insisted  on  in  modern  politi- 
cal life — the  equality  of  all  men,  and  the  right  of  self- 
government — are  two  which  in  the  Creed  and  Constitution 
of  the  Church  find  clear  expression.  In  her  Courts,  from 
Kirk  -  Session   to   General  Assembly,   peer  and   pcasa;.' 


THE  CATHOLIC  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH    i6i 

meet  upon  a  strict  equality,  and  in  the  election  of  her 
office-bearers  the  Christian  people  have  their  privilege  of 
self-government  carefully  preserved.  She  is  a  democratic 
Church,  and  by  her  rapid  extension  in  the  younger  lands 
where  the  modern  principles  find  their  fullest  develop- 
ment, she  is  proving  herst-lf  fitted  for  a  democratic  age. 

5.  The  Cliurcli's  Prospects  for  the  Future.— 

With  a  historic  past  rich  in  heroic  achievement,  and  a 
present  marked  by  world-wide  extension,  the  future  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  is  bright  with  hope.  The  many 
unions  during  the  last  half-century,  between  branches  of 
the  Church  once  sorely  estranged,  may  be  taken  as  the 
presage  of  a  coming  time  when,  in  every  land  where 
Presbyterianism  exists,  there  will  be  but  one  Presbyterian 
Church.  And  if  in  the  far  future  the  day  should  come 
for  which  many  are  longing,  when  the  Churches  of 
Protestant  Christendom  will  abandon  their  isolation  from 
each  other  and  become  one,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
Presbyterian  Church  has  not  been  the  least  active  in  further- 
ing the  great  end.  Of  this  present  service  in  the  cause 
of  union  two  signs  are  very  visible  to-day,  one  without 
the  Church  and  the  other  within.  Outside  the  Presby- 
terian Church,  in  the  other  great  branches  of  Protestant- 
ism, the  leaven  of  Presbyterianism  is  working  not  only 
visibly  but  rapidly.  It  is  only  the  repressing  hand  of  the 
State  in  Germany  that  to-day  prevents  the  Lutheran 
Church  from  adopting  a  Presbyterian  constitution. 
The  universal  adoption  by  the  Anglican  Church  of 
Synodal  government  in  her  Colonial  branches,  where  in 
her  Synods  layman  and  cleric  meet  together  with  the 
Bishop  as  permanent  Moderator ;  the  growing  desire  in 
the  already  semi-Presbyterian  Methodist  Church  for  a 
larger  infusion  of  laymen  in  the  clerical  oligarchy  which 
forms  that  Church's  highest  council ;  the  marked  tendency 
of  Congregationalism  to  gather  its  forces  together  in 
General  Councils  —  all  are  approximations  on  the  part 
of  the  sister  Protestant  Churches  to  methods  which  have 
hitherto  been  peculiar  to  Presbyterianism.  Nor  are  signs 
wanting  within  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  a  like  tendency 


i62         THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

on  her  part  to  break  down  the  walls  of  division.  The 
free  adoption  of  agencies  and  services  formerly  peculiar 
to  other  Churches  points  in  this  direction,  but  most 
significant  of  all  is  the  catholicity  of  spirit  by  which  she  is 
now  pervaded.  She  refuses  the  name  of  Christian  to 
none  "  who  call  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ," 
and  unchurches  no  ecclesiastical  organisation  "where  the 
Word  of  God  is  preached  and  the  Sacraments  duly  ad- 
ministered." In  this  catholicity  lies  a  sure  token  that, 
when  the  day  of  the  reunion  approaches,  the  Catholic 
Presbyterian  Church  will  not  be  found  wanting  in  any 
sacrifice  that  will  hasten  the  answer  to  the  prayer  "that 
they  all  may  be  one." 


Princeton  Theological  Seminary,.  Libraries 


1    1012  01236  0634 


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